Journalism Quarterly Index-Public Relations
Volumes 61 to 70
1984 to 1993
Subject Index: Public Relations
Applying Situational Communication Theory to an International Political Problem: Two Studies (L. Elwin Atwood and Ann Marie Major), 68:200-210.
A Class Action Suit as Public Relations (S. E. Rada), 62:150-54.
Communication by Agricultural Publics: Internal and External Orientations (James E. Grunig, Clifford L. Nelson, Susie J. Richburg and Terry J. White), 65:26-38.
Coorientation of PR Practioners and News Personnel in Education News (Sandra Kruger Stegall and Keith P. Sanders), 63:341-47, 393.
Effect of Public Relations Efforts on Media Visibility of Organizations (S. Holly Stocking), 62:358-66, 450.
Effects of Gender on Professional Encroachment in Public Relations (Martha Lauzen), 69:173-80.
A Factor Analysis of Broom and Smith’s Public Relations Roles Scales (Joey Reagan, Ronald Anderson, Janine Sumner and Scott Hill), 67:177-83.
How Public Relations Practitioners and Editors in Florida View Each Other (Lillian Lodge Kopenhaver, David L. Martinson and Michael Ryan), 6l:860-65.
Impact of SEC Rule 10b-5 on Corporate Public Relations (Douglas P. Killian), 63:735-739.
Individual Differences in Ethical Values of Public Relations Practitioners (Jacob Shamir, Barbara Strauss Reed and Steven Connell), 67:956-63.
Job Satisfaction and Its Correlates Among Public Relations Workers (Terry Lynn Rentner and James H. Bissland), 67:950-55.
Journalists and Public Relations Practitioners: Why the Antagonism? (Michael Ryan and David L. Martinson), 65:131-40.
Organizational Constraints on Corporate Public Relations Practitioners (Michael Ryan), 64:473-82.
Participative vs. Authoritative Public Relations Environments (Michael Ryan), 64:853-57.
Practitioner Roles and Uses of New Technologies (Ronald Anderson and Joey Reagan), 69:156-65.
Predictors of Systematic Public Relations Research in Higher Education (Glen T. Cameron, RuthAnn Weaver Lariscy and Duane D. Sweep), 69:466-70.
Proximity: Localization vs. Distance in PR News Releases (Linda P. Morton and John Warren), 69:1023-28.
Public Relations Environments (Lalit Acharya), 62:577-84.
Public Relations for Appalachia: Berea Mountain Life and Work (Catherine C. Mitchell and C. Joan Schnyder), 66:974-78.
Public Relations in State Government: A Typology of Management Styles (Judy VanSlyke Turk), 62:304-15.
Public Relations Practitioners, Public Interest and Management (Michael Ryan and David L. Martinson), 62:111-15.
Public Relations Practioners’ Views of Corporate Social Responsibility (Michael Ryan), 63:740-47.
The Role of Public Relations in Four Organizational Types (Larissa A. Schneider), 62:567-76, 594.
Sequence Faculty Divided on PR Value, Status and News Orientation (Peter Haberman, Lillian Lodge Kopenhaver and David L. Martinson), 65:490-96.
Social Science Research, Professionalism and Public Relations Practioners (Michael Ryan and David L. Martinson), 67:377-90.
Trying to Harness Atomic Energy, 1946-1951: Albert EinsteinÕs Publicity Campaign for World Government (Susan Caudill), 68:253-62.
Using Grunig’s Indices to Differentiate Organizational Public Relations Functions (Joey Reagan, Janine Sumner and Scott Hill), 69:181-87.
Using Positive vs. Negative Photographs — Or No Photographs — in Third-World Fund Raising (Evelyne J. Dyck and Gary Coldevin), 69:572-79.
RADIO Attribution in Network Radio News: A Cross-Network Analysis (Larry L. Burriss), 65:690-94.
Audience Recall of News Stories Presented by Newspaper, Computer, Television and Radio (Melvin L. DeFleur, Lucinda Davenport, Mary Cronin and Margaret DeFleur), 69:1010-22.
Birth of a Network’s “Conscience”: The NBC Advisory Council, 1927 (Louise Benjamin), 66:587-90.
Comparing Positive and Negative Political Advertising on Radio (Michael A. Shapiro and Robert H. Rieger), 69:135-45.
Defining Ethics in Electronic Journalism: Perceptions of News Directors (K. Tim Wulfemeyer), 67:984-91.
The Emotional Use of Popular Music by Adolescents (Alan Wells and Ernest A. Hakanen), 68:445-54.
FCC Standard-Setting with Regard to FM Stereo and AM Stereo (W.A. Kelly Huff), 68:483-90.
Ownership, Operating, Staffing and Content Characteristics of “News Radio” Stations (Daniel Riffe and Eugene F. Shaw), 67:684-91.
The Precedent that Almost Was: A 1926 Court Effort to Regulate Radio (Louise M. Benjamin), 67:578-85.
President Reagan’s Return to Radio (Howard H. Martin), 61:817-21.
Primary News Source Changes: Question Wording, Availability, and Cohort Effects (Michael D. Basil), 67:708-722.
A Profile of Canadian Radio Newsworkers (George Pollard), 66:80-86.
Radio News Directors’ Perception of Involvement in Advertising and Sales (Thomas A. Griffiths and R. Irwin Goodman), 66:600-606.
The Rogue Elephant of Radio Legislation: Senator William E. Borah (Donald G. Godfrey and Val E. Limburg), 67:214-24.
Unlicensed Broadcasting and the Federal Radio Commission: The 1930 George W. Fellowes Challenge (Steven P. Phipps), 68:823-28.
Use of Audio Inserts in Network Radio Newscasts (Larry L. Burriss), 65:474-78.
Journalism Quarterly Index-Newswriting and Reporting
Volumes 61 to 70
1984 to 1993
Subject Index: Newswriting and Reporting
Between Quotation Marks (Adrienne Lehrer), 66:902-06.
Communication and Community Integration: An Analysis of the Communication Behavior of Newcomers (Keith R. Stamm and Avery M. Guest), 68:644-56.
A Comparison of Trial Lawyer and News Reporter Attitudes about Courthouse Communication (Jeremy Harris Lipschultz), 68:750-63.
Competition, Ownership, Newsroom and Library Resources in Large Newspapers (John C. Busterna, Kathleen A. Hansen and Jean Ward), 68:729-39.
Contracts and Confidential Sources: The Implications of Cohen v. Cowles Media (Paula S. Horvath-Neimeyer), 67:1078-1082.
Deviant Acts, Risky Business and U.S. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events (Pamela J. Shoemaker, Lucig H. Danielian and Nancy Brendlinger), 68:781-95.
Dimensions of Writing Apprehension Among Mass Communication Students (Daniel Riffe and Don W. Stacks), 65:384-91.
An Editorial Comment (Donald L. Shaw), 68:1.
Effects of Cuing Familiar and Unfamiliar Acronyms in Newspaper Stories, An Experiment (Jack Nolan), 68:188-94.
Effects of the Electronic Library on News Reporting Protocols (Jean A. Ward, Kathleen A. Hansen and Douglas M. McLeod), 65:845-52.
Effects of Newspaper Competition on Public Opinion Diversity (Dominic L. Lasorsa), 68:38-47.
Factors Influencing Development News Production at Three Indian Dailies (Hemant Shah), 67:1034-1041.
Fairness and Balance in the Prestige Press (Stephen Lacy, Frederick Fico and Todd F. Simon), 68:363-70.
Finding Work and Getting Paid: Predictors of Success in the Mass Communications Market (Lee B. Becker, Gerald M. Kosicki, Thomas Engleman, and K. Viswanath), 70:919-33.
Hispanic Americans in the News in Two Southwestern Cities (Judy VanSlyke Turk, Jim Richstad, Robert L. Bryson, Jr., and Sammye M. Johnson), 66:107-113.
How Bureacratic Writing Style Affects Source Credibility (Duangkamol Chartprasert), 70:150-59.
How Journalists at Two Newspapers View Good Writing and Writing Coaches (David C. Coulson and Cecilie Gaziano), 66:435-40.
How Journalists Describe Their Stories: Hypotheses and Assumptions in Newsmaking (S. Holly Stocking and Nancy LaMarca), 67:295-301.
The Impact of Quotation in News Reports on Issue Perception (Rhonda Gibson and Dolf Zillmann), 70:793-800.
The Impact of Training on User Evaluations of Videotext (Lee B. Becker and Bernadette M. Hemels), 69:1001-09.
The Importance of Mechanics in Journalistic Writing: A Study of Reporters and Editors (Steven A. Ward and Rick Seifert), 67:104-113.
Inclusion of “Useful” Detail in Newspaper Coverage of a High-Level Nuclear Waste Siting Controversy (Marshel D. Rossow and Sharon Dunwoody), 68:87-100.
Information Richness and Newspaper Pulitzer Prizes (Kathleen A. Hansen), 67:930-35.
Journalist and Librarian Roles, Information Technologies and Newsmaking (Jean Ward and Kathleen A. Hansen), 68:491-98.
Journalists and Novelists: A Study of Diverging Styles (Wayne A. Danielson, Dominic L. Lasorsa and Dae S. Im), 69:436-46.
Live Television Interviews at the 1988 Democratic Convention (David L. Womack), 66:670-74.
Media Coverage of Disasters: Effect of Geographic Location (Eleanor Singer, Phyllis Endreny and Marc B. Glassman), 68:48-58.
Motives for Ethical Decision-Making (Michael W. Singletary, Susan Caudill, Edward Caudill and Allen White), 67:964-72.
Murder and Myth: New York Times Coverage of the TWA 847 HijackingVictim (Jack Lule), 70:26-39.
The New England Journal of Medicine as News Sources (Edward Caudill and Paul Ashdown), 66:458-63.
News Context and the Elimination of Mobilizing Information: An Experiment (James B. Lemert), 61:243-49, 259.
News Coverage, Endorsements and Personal Campaigning: The Influence of Non-Paid Activities in Congressional Elections (Ruth Ann Weaver-Lariscy and Spencer F. Tinkham), 68:432-44.
News Sources and News Context: The Effect of Routine News, Conflict and Proximity (Dan Berkowitz and Douglas W. Beach), 70:4-12.
News Sources, Power Elites, and Journalistic Values in Newspaper Coverage of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (Conrad Smith), 70:393-403.
News Strategies and the Death of Huey Newton (Jack Lule), 70:287-99.
On the Wire: How Six News Services are Exceeding Readability Standards (Kevin Catalano), 67:97-103.
Political Diversity Is Alive Among Publishers and Opinion Page Editors (Suraj Kapoor and Jong G. Kang), 70:404-411.
Predictors of Job Burnout in Reporters and Copy Editors (Betsy B. Cook and Steven R. Banks), 70:108-17.
Press Identification of Victims of Sexual Assault: Weighing Privacy and Constitutional Concerns (Morgan David Arant Jr.), 68:238-52.
Proximity of Event as Factor in Selection on News Sources (Shannon Rossi Martin), 65:986-89.
Public Opinion on Investigative Reporting in the 1980s (David Weaver and LeAnne Daniels), 69:146-55.
Recent Trends in Adversarial Attitudes among American Newspaper Journalists: A Cohort Analysis (Jian-Hua Zhu), 67:992-1004.
Scientists’ Reasons for Consenting to Mass Media Interviews: A National Survey (Suzan M. DiBella, Anthony J. Ferri and Allan B. Padderud), 68:740-49.
Shotgun Marriage: A Study of Tennessee Law Enforcement, Reporters and Sources (Elinor Kelly Grusin), 67:514-20.
Source Diversity and Newspaper Enterprise Journalism (Kathleen A. Hansen), 68:474-82.
Sources and Channels of Local News (John Soloski), 66:864-70.
Sourcing Patterns of National Security Reporters (Daniel C. Hallin, Robert Karl Manoff, and Judy K. Weddle), 70:753-66.
Sportswriters Talk About Themselves: An Attitude Study (J. Sean McCleneghan), 67:114-18.
A Survey of VU/TEXT Use in the Newsroom (Cynthia De Riemer), 69:960-70.
Symbiosis of Press and Protest: An Exchange Analysis (Gadi Wolfsfeld), 61:550-55, 742.
Using Expert Sources in Breaking Science Stories: A Comparison of Magazine Types (Shannon E. Martin), 68:179-87.
Value Coding and Consensus In Front Page News Leads (Dennis M. Corrigan), 67:653-62.
Who Will Talk to Reporters? Biases in Survey Reinterviews (Marc Baldassare and Cheryl Katz), 66:907-12.
Winning Newspaper Pulitzer Prizes: The (Possible) Advantage of Being a Competitive Paper (H. Allen White and Julie L Andsager), 67:912-19.
Journalism Quarterly Index-Methodology-Research
Volumes 61 to 70
1984 to 1993
Subject Index: Methodology — Research
Applying Fiction Conflict Situation to Analysis of News Stories (Hunter P. McCartney), 64:163-70.
Comparisons Between Three Versions of the Professional Orientation Index (J.P. Henningham), 61:302-09.
Counting Items Versus Measuring Space in Content Analysis (Abdulrahman H. Al-Enad), 68:657-62.
Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index (Philip Meyer), 65:567-74.
Development of a Conformity Index to Assess Network Television News (David L. Jaffe), 66:662-69.
Do “Instant Polls” Hit the Spot? Phone-in vs. Random Sampling of Public Opinion (Benjamin Bates and Mark Harmon), 70:369-80.
The Effectiveness of Random, Consecutive Day and Constructed Week Sampling in Newspaper Content Analysis (Daniel Riffe, Charles F. Aust and Stephen R. Lacy), 70:133-39.
Establishing Construct Validity of the Hayakawa-Lowry News Bias Categories (Dennis T. Lowry), 63:573-80.
How Comics and Cartoons View Public Opinion Surveys (Tom W. Smith), 64:208-11.
How Credible Is the Credibility Crisis? (Cecilie Gaziano), 65:267-78.
How Response Rates Compare for Human and Digitized Phone Surveys (Michael Havice), 66:137-42.
The Impact of Varying Reference Periods in Survey Questions about Media Use (Vincent Price), 70:615-27.
Measuring Nonresponse and Refusals to An Electronic Telephone Survey (Michael J. Havice), 67:521-30.
Organizational Factors and Nonresponse in a Survey of Newspaper Editors (Tsan-Kuo Chang, David Voelker and Jaewon Lee), 67:732-39.
Paradigmatic Drift: A Bibliographic Review of the Spread of Economic Analysis in the Literature of Communication (Kurt M. Miller and Oscar H. Gandy Jr.), 68:663-71.
Post-Card Questionnaires May Boost Response Rate (Robert C. Kochersberger Jr.), 64:861-63.
Reliability of Immediate Reward and Delayed Reward Categories (Michael W. Singletary), 62:116-20.
Reliability of the News Direction Scale for Analysis of the Good-Bad News Dimension (Jack B. Haskins, M. Mark Miller and Jan Quarles), 61:524-28.
Research About Magazines Appearing in Journalism Quarterly (Peter Gerlach), 64:178-82.
The Roper Question and Television vs. Newspapers: The Case of Hispanics (M. Mark Miller, Michael W. Singletary and Shu-Ling Chen), 65:12-19.
Sampling Ethnic Media Use: The Case of Hispanics (Tsan-Kuo Chang, Pamela J. Shoemaker, Stephen D. Reese and Wayne Danielson), 65:189-91.
Sins of Omission and Commission in Mass Communication Quantitative Research (Stephen R. Lacy and Daniel Riffe), 70:126-32.
Standards and Perceived Roles of JMC Journal Reviewers (Stanley T. Wearden and Fredric F. Endres), 68:499-508.
Use of Message Stimuli in Mass Communication Experiments: A Methodological Assessment and Discussion (Michael D. Slater), 68:412-21.
Use of Polls in Reporting Changes Slightly Since 1978 (David Pearce Demers), 64:839-42.
Use of ‘Vague’ Quantifiers in Measuring Communication Behaviors (J. David Kennamer), 69:646-50.
Using Grunig’s Indices to Differentiate Organizational Public Relations Functions (Joey Reagan, Janine Sumner and Scott Hill), 69:181-87.
Validating an Ethical Motivations Scale: Convergence and Predictive Ability (H. Allen White and R. Charles Pearce), 68:455-64.
Why Going Online for Content Analysis Can Reduce Research Reliability (Philip A. Kaufman, Carol Reese Dykers, and Carole Caldwell), 70:824-32.
Public Relations 1998 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
Research
Public Relations and Consumer Decisions: Effectively Managing the Relationships that Impact Consumer Behavior • Steven D. Bruning and John A. Ledingham, Capital University • Within the business environment, public relations traditionally has been conceptualized as focused on enhancing the organization’s image and helping the public the see the organization as a “good corporate citizen.” This investigation sought to examine the impact that consumer perceptions of the organization-public relationship, consumer attitudes about price, and consumer attitudes about a particular product feature have on consumer behavior the findings indicate that the relationship that exists between the consumer and the organization differentiates those who are loyal to the organization from those who are not.
Women in the Public Relations Trade Press: A Content Analysis of Tide and Public Relations Journal (1940s through 1960s) • Patricia A. Curtin, North Carolina and Karen S. Miller, Georgia • A quantitative and qualitative content analysis of all editorial content by or about women in Tide and Public Relations Journal from the 1940s through the 1960s reveals women in a variety of roles: public relations professionals, working women, target audiences, and cheesecake. Coverage between the two magazines was markedly different, with Tide presenting a more varied depiction of women’s lives and work. Trends over time include the increasing marginalization of women within the field.
Bridging Connections: Refining Measurements of the Involvement Construct • Dixie Shipp Evatt, Texas-Austin • This paper offers theoretical refinement of Grunig’s situational theory of publics by explicating and testing the involvement construct. Zaichkowsky’s Personal Involvement Inventory (PII) is shown to be a reliable measure of the construct when applied to public policy issues and problems. Data reduction through a factor analysis shows that the involvement construct may have four distinct elements. In addition, level of involvement seeking behavior.
Public Relations’ Potential Contribution to Effective Healthcare Management • Chandra Grosse Gordon, Davis Partners, Lafayette, LA, and Kathleen S. Kelly, Southwestern Louisiana • A national survey of 191 heads of public relations departments in hospitals measured the department’s expertise or knowledge to practice excellent public relations, as defined by recent research. Utilizing two scales original to the study, correlations showed strong and significant relationships between organizational effectiveness and departments with high potential to practice the two-way symmetrical model, enact the manager role, and participate in strategic planning. Findings can be used by hospitals to help resolve the current healthcare crisis.
No Virginia, It’s Not True What They Say About Publicity’s ‘Implied Third-Party Endorsement’ Effect • Kirk Hallahan, Colorado State • This review essay examines “implied third-party endorsement” as an explanation of publicity effectiveness. In lieu of a the traditional view that publicity’s superiority can be attributed to conscious decisions by media workers to devote coverage to a particular topic, the author argues that publicity’s superiority can be explained, at best, as an inferred endorsement. The author argues that effects commonly attributed to third-party endorsements actually stem from biased audience processing that favors news and disfavors advertising.
Learning to Swim Skillfully in Uncharted Waters: Doris E. Fleischman • Susan Henry, California State-Northridge • Between 1913 and 1922, public relations began to be established as a profession and the life of one of its previously unacknowledged pioneers, Doris E. Fleischman, changed in remarkable ways. This paper charts Fleischman’s early career as a newspaper reporter and then as the first employee hired by Edward L. Bernays. It describes some of their early campaigns and the growing collaboration between them until 1922, when she became an equal partner in the firm of Edward L. Bernays, Counsel on Public Relations.
Fess Up or Stonewall? An Experimental Test of Prior Reputation and Response Style in the Face of Negative News Coverage • Lisa Lyon and Glen T. Cameron, Georgia • A fully counterbalanced, within-subjects experiment addressed fundamental questions about the value of corporate reputation. The 2 (good vs. bad reputation) x 2 (apologetic vs. defensive) design also compared apologetic and defensive responses to negative news about a company. Reputation profoundly affected memory attitude and behavioral intentions, bearing our platitudes about bottom-line importance of reputation management. Conversely, response style was nor particularly robust as a factor affecting cognitive, affective and behavioral measures. Interaction effects of the two factors ran counter to common wisdom abjuring the stonewall response.
Reaching Publics on the Web During the 1996 Presidential Campaign • Carol Anne McKeown and Kenneth D. Plowman, San Jose State • This case study explored how the 1996 Democrat and Republican parties’ presidential candidates used the World Wide Web to communicate to voters during the general election. The study found that the campaigns were able to present more in-depth issue information through this new communication medium than traditional medial channels. Results also indicated that the campaigns did not use this new technology to increase interaction between voters and candidates.
Dealing With The Feminization of the Field: Attitudes and Aptitudes of College Women in Public Relations • Michael A. Mitrook, Central Florida; Kimberly V. Wilkes and Glen Cameron, Georgia • A survey of nearly 700 students in introductory public relations classes found that stereotypes of public relations could be one reason women are drawn to public relations and men are not drawn to public relations. Men in the sample saw less opportunity for management and rated the field as both feminine and masculine. Women in the sample saw public relations a job valuable to society.
The World Wide Web as a Public Relations Medium: The Use of Research, Planning, and Evaluation by Web Site Decision-Makers • Candace White and Niranjan Raman, Tennessee • The World Wide Web is viewed as a new medium for public relations by many organizations. Given the evolving nature of the Web and the mixed findings about commercial successes of Web sites, little is known about the managerial aspects of Web site research, planning, and evaluation. This study found that in many cases, Web site planning is done by trail and error based on subjective knowledge and intuition, with little to no formal research and evaluation.
Public Relations Strategies and Organization-Public Relationships: A Path Analysis • Yi-Hui Huang, National Chen-chih University • The purpose of this study was to explore two focal concepts and especially their casual relationships: public relations strategies and organization-public relationships. I chose Taipei as the locale for the study and delimited my research scope to examining executive-legislative relations. A self-administered questionnaire sent to legislators and their assistants in Taiwan was the primary method of data collection. This study contributes to the development of public relations theory in the following ways: 1) introducing a new measure of public relations effects, 2) providing a reconceptualization of models of public relations.
Integrating Intercultural Communication and International Public Relations: An “In-Awareness” Model • R.S. Zaharna, American • This paper addresses what Hugh Culbertson (1996) called the “hot topic” • international public relations. The literature review examines parallel trends within international public relations and intercultural communication. Examples from a Fulbright project are presented, each highlighting a cultural aspect. The examples provide a cultural base for constructing a theoretical model by synthesizing research from intercultural communication and international public relations. The model asks three key questions: What is feasible? What is involved? What is effective?
Teaching
Teaching Public Relations Campaigns: The Current State of the Art • Vincent L. Benigni and Glen T. Cameron, Georgia • A national survey of campaigns professors was conducted to provide public relations faculty with helpful pedagogical information about the public relations campaigns course and to provide the current Commission on Public Relations Education with an empirical basis for setting curricular guidelines. Results indicated that while the great majority of campaigns classes incorporate research elements, many are not grounded in theory, a crucial criterion for “excellent” public relations. Responses also indicated a glaring absence of “real-world” strategies and tactics in the course and inconsistencies regarding the agency-style setup.
High Tech vs. High Concepts: A Survey of Technology Integration in U.S. Public Relations Curricula • Patricia A. Curtin, Elizabeth M. Witherspoon and Dulcie M. Straughan, North Carolina-Chapel Hill • A perennial issue in the journalism and mass communication professions is whether students are acquiring the skills they need to enter and thrive in an ever-changing work environment. This paper reports the results of an electronic mail survey of public relations educators about how they integrate new technology use and instruction into their curricula. The second phase of the study will survey public relations practitioners about technology skills they require of entry-level employees.
Advising the Bateman Case Study Competition: A Help or Hindrance to the Academic Career • Emma Louise Daugherty, California State University-Long Beach • Many faculty in public relations advise students in competitions that provide hands-on experience. The benefits of student participation are well documented, but rewards systems evaluate faculty on teaching, research, and service. Most universities place the greatest importance on research and then teaching. This study examines whether advising student competitions, particularly the Bateman Case Study Competition, helps or hinders an academic career. Fifty-five advisors of the 1997 Bateman Case Study Competition responded to a survey that measured the importance of their advising in decisions on tenure, promotion, and merit bonuses.
Enlightened Self Interest • An Ethical Baseline for Teaching Corporate Public Relations • Patricia T. Whalen, Michigan State • Despite the current unpopularity of “enlightened self interest” as an ethical baseline for teaching public relations, this paper suggests that it may be a practical way to bridge the discrepancy between the personal ethics approach to corporate decision-making favored by public relations educators and the fiduciary responsibility approach favored by corporate executives. The paper explores a number of studies that indicate that such a discrepancy does, indeed, exist and suggests that as long as it does, it will keep public relations practitioners from playing a significant role in corporate decision-making.
Student Papers
Public Relations or Private Controls? The Growth of “Private” Public Relations • Bruce K. Berger, Kentucky • This exploratory research examines the changing nature of public relations sites. It is theorized that new technologies allow corporations to bypass media screens and increase control over message and message environment at emergent sites. A typology of public relations sites is created as a basis for examining control and public/private aspects. Two hypotheses are then tested through a telephone survey of senior public relations executives at 35 of the Fortune 500 companies and through an analysis of actual expenditures in sites during the 1990s.
Crises on the Cyberspace: Applying Agenda Setting Theory to On-line Crisis Management • Tzong-Horng Dzwo (Dustin), Florida • With rapid advancement of new communication technologies, people currently can freely and actively express their own opinions in the new media. As a result, public relations professionals encounter a harder challenge when a crisis hits their organizations. This paper proposes a crisis communication model by integrating Sturges’ (1994) public opinion model of crisis management with the agenda-setting theoretical framework. Hopefully this model will provide greater insights into how to effectively manage public opinion and control the crisis to the advantage of the corporations.
Searching for Excellence in Public Relations: An Analysis of the Public Relations Efforts of Five Forestry Companies in the U.S. • Kimberly Gill, Florida • This preliminary study was designed to gauge the use of public relations and to provide a baseline evaluation of the public relations programs of five forestry companies according to J. Grunig’s 17 factors of excellent public relations (1992). Companies were chosen because of their prominence in the industry and availability of information. Data was collected from the web sites of each company, employee interviews and various public relations materials produced by each company.
Organizations and Public Relations: Institutional Isomorphism • Hyun Seung Jin, North Carolina-Chapel Hill • Research on the effects of environmental forces in determining organizational structure and practice has supplied public relations researchers with framework. However, previous studies have not shown a strong relationship between types of organizations and public relation practices. Thus, this study asks “why are organizations not practicing public relations very differently?” Using the literature of institutionalization of organizational practices, the study develops a theoretical explanation and alternative hypotheses.
Exploring an IMC Evaluation Model: The Integration of Public Relations and Advertising Effects • Yungwook Kim, Florida • This paper is trying to establish the relationships among variables in corporate communications, especially between public relations and advertising, and to establish an evaluation model for integrating the effects of communication activities in the context of integrated marketing communication (IMC). This paper deals with the categorization of IMC evaluation by integrating public relations and advertising and advertising evaluation. And the weakness and need of IMC evaluation are delineated. For testing, a new approach for integrating effects of communication activities is introduced and the IMC evaluation model is specified.
Conflict Resolution: The Relationship Between Air Force Public Affairs and Legal Functions • James William Law, Florida • This research examines the relationship between Air Force public affairs and legal functions to find out what conflict exists, how often it occurs, how it is resolved, what the results are for the Air Force as a whole, and what can be done to improve the relationship. The study is based on conflict resolution theory and examines the relationship in terms of win-win, win-lose and lose-lose scenarios.
Paychex Public Relations: Does it Contradict the Excellence Study? • Andrea C. Martino, Monroe Community College • According to the International Association of Business Communicators Excellence Study, centralizing the public relations function and having the department represented by the top communicator in the dominant coalition contribute to an organization’s excellence. But neither qualification is true in the case of Paychex, Inc., a multi-million-payroll processing company in Rochester, N.Y. Can such an organization be considered excellent by IABC standards? And if so, can it continue?
Public Relations and the Web: Measuring the Effect of Interactivity, Information, and Access to Information in Web Sites • Michelle O’Malley and Tracy Irani, Florida • This study’s purpose is to develop research which examines targeted publics’ attitudes and behaviors with respect to interactivity, information, and access to information in Web sites. Using TORA, this study examined whether perceived interactivity, information, access to information or any combination thereof, would be the best predictor of intention. Results showed that a combination of information and interactivity would be the best predictor of intending to revisit a Web site.
Hospital Public Relations and Its Relationship to Crisis Management • Melissa Ratherdale, Florida • This study qualitatively explores hospital public relations practitioners to implement effective crisis management. In-depth interviews with hospital public relations practitioners revealed that the current organizational climate does not allow for effective crisis management. The climate does allow for practitioners to educate their CEOs about strategic public relations. By doing this, practitioners potentially can move themselves into the necessary roles to effectively manage crises.
Intercultural Public Relations: Exploring Cultural Identity as a Means of Segmenting Publics • Bey-Ling Sha, Maryland • Framed by literature on public relations management, societal culture, and cultural identity, this study found that differences in identification with a cultural group predicts differences in the variables of the situational theory of publics. Non-Caucasian survey respondents were significantly more likely to recognize, feel involved with, process information about, and seek information about racioethnic problems. Canonical correlation showed a “minority public” arising around racioethnic and gender issues and a “youth public” arising around alcohol abuse and academic dishonesty.
Religion and Media 1999 Abstracts
Religion and Media Interest Group
Mother Teresa’s Death As Mystical Narrative In National Newspaper Dailes • Dennis D. Cali, East Carolina University • Newspaper coverage of the death of Mother Teresa of Calcutta, overshadowed in part by the extravagant media attention to Princess Diana’s death, was arguably abbreviated. However, articles on the Teresa story captured the symbolic significance and mythic character of the diminutive nun. This essay explains how, isolating rhetorical qualities that render the articles, collectively, a “mystical narrative.”
Communication In Religious Lobbying: Making Meaning Through Journalism • Kyle Huckins, Northwest Oklahoma State University • “Communication in Religious Lobbying: Making Meaning through Journalism” examines influence-building strategies used by religious groups in their discourse on issues. Taking Hofrenning’s list of three such strategies (symbolic, language, and coalition-building), the study applies the trio to an organizational publication. The study of Christian Coalition’s Christian American concludes that the group of religious conservatives used varying issue emphases, contexts and alliances to mobilize followers, and gravitated toward a political rather than religious agenda.
Not Alone In A Crowd: Religion, Media and Community Connected-ness At The Dawn Of A New Century • Michael A. Longinow, Asbury College • Religion and media in America have intertwined each other in a variety of ways from the earliest decades of this country’s democratic experiment. Moreover, religious organizations and those interested in religion have adapted themselves in innovative ways to the changing formats of popular media through this century, in many cases bringing cohesion and community to American religion. The end of the Twentieth Century and the dawn of the Twenty-First bring hope that this intermingling of media and religion will not diminish and could grow and flourish.
The Press And The “Greening Of Religion”: Themes, Sources, And Conflict In Newspaper Coverage Of Faith-based Environmentalism • Rick Clifton Moore, Boise State University • This paper investigates news coverage of environmental activity among American religious groups in the 1990s. The press, in reporting this phenomenon, presented a facade of religious inclusiveness while consistently reporting the story in ways that focused on traditional American religious institutions. In addition, official sources were called upon much more frequently than unofficial sources. Finally, reporters tended to downplay conflict in stories, using novelty as the key news value and attempting to extend that novelty over several years of reporting.
The Effect of Digitalization on Religious Television Stations • Brad Schultz, Southern Illinois University • This study sought to investigate the effect of the government-mandated transfer from analog to digital broadcasting, as it pertains to religious television stations. The study measured attitudes of religious broadcasting executives through a mail survey and had three hypotheses: digitalization would result in more consolidation, syndication and the emergence of a new economic model. Support was shown for consolidation and a new model, but not for syndication.
Hollywood’s God: The Problem of Divine Providence • Jeffery A. Smith, Iowa • ABSTRACT NOT AVAILABLE.
Secularists or Modern Day Prophets: A Study Of The Ethical And Moral Values Of Today’s Journalists And Their Connection To The Judeo-Christian Tradition • Doug Underwood, Washington • This nationwide study a strong religious orientation in their lives, and that their professional values are rooted solidly in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Respondents reported strong levels of religious belief by a variety of measurements. Even journalists who weren’t religiously oriented responded positively to a series of professional exhortations by famous journalists that contain strong religious overtones, as long as the maxims didn’t use language that is overtly religious in nature.
Watching The Religious Audience: The Complex Relationship Between The Christian Media, The Mainstream Media And The Conservative Protestant Audience • Hillary Warren, Wisconsin-Stevens Point • This paper considers the problematic relationship between the conservative Protestant audience and the Christian media. Using a combination of interviews and market data, the author finds that the Christian media is limited as an indicator of rank and file opinion. The paper concludes with several suggestions for research into this relationship, primarily focusing on the importance of small groups and interpersonal connections in the formation of media-related opinion in the conservative Protestant community.
Public Relations 1999 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
Research
Delineating (and Delimiting) the Boundary Spanning Role of the Medical Public Information Officer: A Survey of Editors and Cardiac Surgeons — Raymond N. Ankney and Patricia A. Curtin, North Carolina — Medical public information officers serve as boundary spanners between medical experts and journalists. Editors at every daily newspaper in Pennsylvania and cardiac surgeons in Pennsylvania were surveyed the role of medical PIOs. While the two groups expressed many similar opinions, editors generally were more open to medical PIOs as boundary spanners, whereas surgeons preferred to handle their own media relations.
Getting Past Platitudes: Factors Limiting Accommodation in Public Relations — Glen T. Cameron, Fritz Cropp and Bryan H. Reber, Missouri — We wanted to learn whether top corporate public relations executives at companies with revenues measured in billions of dollars had ever encountered situations that precluded taking an accommodative stance toward a public. Respondents offered instances when proscriptive factors did preclude accommodation on some occasions. Top practitioners strive for accommodation toward most publics, expressed in win-win platitudes. But the practice of two-way symmetrical communication was supplanted when “we got down to cases” that provide a rich understanding of the forces at play in conflict management.
The Cultural Competence Spiral: An Assessment and Profile of U.S Public Relations Practitioners’ Preparation for International Assignments — Alan R. Freitag, North Carolina-Charlotte — This applied research predicts, and finds support for, a spiral beginning with public relations practitioners’ preparation for international assignments, leading to assignment-seeking behavior, success and satisfaction in those assignments, consequently increased intercultural competence, followed by further assignment-seeking behavior, continuing the upward spiral. Results indicate that academic and professional preparation for international assignments among U.S. practitioners is limited, but that preparation correlates positively with success and satisfaction in international assignments.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Do People Really Hold Corporations Responsible For Their Actions? — Jessica Hicks, Hua-Hsin Wan and Michael Pfau, Wisconsin-Madison — Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become a hot issue in public relations. Many corporate CEOs believe that CSR plays an instrumental role in consumer evaluations of a corporation. Surveys of consumers’ attitude and behaviors also indicate that they intend to reward corporations for being socially responsible and punish those who are not. In reality, however, there is a debate over whether consumers indeed do what they intend to do. fIn other words, researchers have argued that there is a discrepancy between consumers’ intention to act and their actual behavior. >
Measuring the Economic Value of Public Relations — Yungwook Kim, Florida — This study establishes a two-step model to measure the economic value of public relations by testing two relationships: 1) the impact of public relations expense on reputation as a goal of public relations, and 2) the economic impact of reputation on revenues as companies’ bottom lines. The proposed model showed an appropriate fitting and coefficients were statistically significant. All three hypotheses were supported. By integrating the results of the hypothesis tests, the proposed two-stage model for measuring the economic impact of public relations activities was supported.
Persuasion, Image, And Campaign Message Design: A Case Study Of University Image — Mary Anne Moffitt, Illinois State University — It is a bit ironic that research conducted into image has typically focused on the profit-oriented corporation and that many scholars exploring image have not paid much attention to the image processes of the one organization which Supports most of them-the university. Recent research into image, however, has begun to recognize the importance’ of studying university image processes (Bok, 1992; Gose, 1994; Immerwahr & Harvey, 1995; Phair, 1992; Theus, 1993).
Uncovering the Support Area/In-House Agency Paradox with Evaluative Research — Juan C. Molleda and Lynn M. Zoch, South Carolina — While conducting evaluative research for the corporate communications division of a large regional affiliate of a national insurance group, the researchers uncovered a paradox in the way the communication function is viewed by the division and its “internal customers.” The staff of the division see themselves as a support area of the organization, acting mainly in a technical function by following the directives of other areas, while the areas with which they work see corporate communications as an in-house agency and themselves as its “clients.”
Toward a Self-Regulated and an Ethics-Based Framework for Marketing Communications in Sub-Saharan Africa — Cornelius B. Pratt, University of Zambia and Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce-Southern Africa, Charles C. Okigbo, North Dakota State University and Louisa Ha, The Gallup Organization — Marketing communications, as a promotional strategy, are being used in public- and private-sector campaigns to stimulate the establishment and expansion of much-needed economic growth and development in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, this paper argues that such a pivotal role be performed within an ethical framework, if the resources of the region and its potential are to be fully explored to attain such goals. The framework is anchored on the non-consequential, duty-based normative theory of deontology.
The Models of Public Relations in India — K. Sriramesh, Florida — As we approach the new millennium, we see a shrinking world in which people in the far corners of the world are increasingly influencing each other in many ways. The decade of the 90’s has been the harbinger of cross-nation exchanges of goods and services. The formation of trading blocks such as NAFTA, EC, ASEAN and APEC has resulted in increased trade among different countries. Further, the explosion of communication technology such as satellite communication and the Internet has contributed to the development of markets around the globe.
A Content Analysis of the Web Pages of Large U.S. Corporations: What is the Role of Public Relations and Marketing? — Suchitra Vattyam and Charles A. Lubbers, Kansas State University — American businesses have expended a great deal of effort on World Wide Web activities, often with limited success. A content analysis of homepage features for 83 of the Fortune 100 companies was performed. The percentages of pages with each feature is provided and then the features are classified according to the business function each attempts to fulfill. The results indicate that many activities found on these homepages are traditionally associated with public relations.
An Innovative Look at Gender in Public Relations: Examining Relationships between Gender and Source Credibility in Employee Communication Messages and Media — Donald K. Wright and Jill R. Haynes, South Alabama — Gender differences between women and men have served as the focal point for much public relations research within the past two decades. However, the public relations body of knowledge lacks any studies that examine gender in terms of how women and men react differently to public relations communication messages and the communication media delivering them. This study examines the impact of gender differences on the receivers of an organization’s internal public relations communication messages.
Teaching
An Exploratory Look at Graduate Public Relations Curricula — Linda Aldoory and Elizabeth L. Toth, Syracuse University — This was an exploratory content analysis of master’s degree programs in public relations that described the status of public relations graduate curricula. Using recommendations of the Foundation for Public Relations Research and Education as a benchmark, general requirements, core public relations courses, optional public relations courses and other optional courses were examined. Findings indicated a lack of adherence to the Foundation’s recommendations and a lack of consistency across programs as to number and type of courses required or offered.
A National Study of a Three-Weekend Accelerated Class Format Within the Public Relations Curriculum — Lisa T. Fall, Michigan State University — The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of Public Relations Management courses offered over a six-month period in a three-weekend accelerated curriculum format. The theoretical framework from which this study was designed is derived from Malcolm Knowles’ andragogy theory of adult learning. This study addresses the following three research questions: RQ1: How do students who are enrolled in this class format rate its effectiveness in relation to the assumptions of the andragogy theory?
Helping Students Succeed in the Introduction to Public Relations Course: The Influence of Student Study Manuals and Cablecast Review Sessions on Classroom Performance — Charles A. Lubbers, Kansas State University — This research assessed the value of two distance learning tools as supplements for the traditional introduction to public relations course. The point totals from four exams taken by 506 students were regressed with students’ reported usage of a study manual, usage of televised review sessions, year in school and major status. The results indicate that all four variables are significantly correlated with class performance, but that the study manual explains the most variance.
The Internet, Online Resources and Public Relations Practitioners: What They Use and What They Recommend for Students — Michael Ryan, Houston — This paper reports the results of a nationwide survey of 150 public relations practitioners who were to indicate the extent to which they use the World Wide Web and online resources; when they began using computers for non-word processing purposes; what computer skills are needed in their offices; what skills they seek in new hires; the extent to which they were involved in creating Web sites; and how much importance they attach to Web pages.
Student
Do Corporate Annual Reports and Web Sites Support a Commitment to Social Responsibility? — Kimberly Gill, Florida — This pilot study employed content analysis to examine the extent to which the corporate annual reports and web sites of six corporations demonstrated social responsibility. Social responsibility was framed through the literature review using definitions of social responsibility, philanthropy and public relations. Literature indicated that investors are concerned about the corporate citizenship of companies in which they invest. Contrary to what the literature suggested, companies lacked complete social responsibility disclosure in annual reports and web sites.
Making the Web Work for Non-Profits: Recommendations for the Ronald McDonald House of Dallas — Amy Henika, Trinity University — This paper discusses making Web sites effective for non-profit organizations. It reviews Web sites in general: what they are, why they have proliferated, how they function as part of marketing communications, and what makes them effective. It compares an effective commercial site, Gap, with two lion-profit sites: Bryan’s House and Ronald McDonald House of Dallas. Based on that analysis, the paper recommends improvements for the Ronald McDonald House of Dallas site.
Tactics in Labor Disputes Viewed as Public Relations Activities: Two Strikes in Milwaukee, 1934-1935 — Darlene Jirikowic, Wisconsin-Milwaukee — The mid-1930s were rich in union organizing and the period lends itself to a review of public relations functions as they were used in an arena not usually associated with such activities. This paper focuses on the strategies designed to influence a public or publics in two high-profile strikes in Milwaukee, the Electric Railway and Light Company and the Lindemann-Hoverson Stove Works. In particular, this paper concentrates on the tactics centering on the unions’ most important external public, the employer.
What Dimensions Constitute A Good Corporate Image In the Eyes of Chinese Educated Public in Hong Kong — Lee Kaman Betty, Hong Kong Baptist University — The present study is to examine what dimensions constitute a good corporate image in the eyes of Chinese educated public in Hong Kong. Two hundred and fifty-four (54 males and 200 females) undergraduate students in Hong Kong participated in the present study. An empirical measure called Corporate Image Scale was developed and used. Varimax factor analysis revealed seven meaningful factors. Moreover, the predictability of each factor was examined. Implications of findings are discussed.
Standardizing International Crisis Communication In The United States: The Effects Of Spokesperson Ethnicity On Credibility And Image Ratings Of Multinational Organizations — Laura Arpan Ralstin, Alabama — An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of using American versus non-American spokespersons for multinational organizations in a crisis situation. The experiment varied the home country of the organization (United States, Mexico, Japan, and Germany) as well as whether the company used a spokesperson from its home country or an American spokesperson. Path analyses found company image to be predicted by spokesperson credibility ratings. Additionally, the degree of participants’ ethnic identities affected spokesperson similarity ratings, which in turn predicted spokesperson credibility ratings.
Responding to Crisis: The Communications Aftermath of the Thurston High School Shootings — Andi Stein, Oregon — This paper is a case-study of the crisis communications response that took place following the Thurston High School shootings in Springfield, Oregon, in May 1998. It addresses the challenges faced by the public information officers in the Springfield/Eugene, Oregon, area who dealt with the communications aftermath of the Thurston shootings and evaluates the public relations activities implemented by these individuals while responding to this crisis.
There’s Something About PR: Influence Of Positive And Normative Models Of Public Relations On Job Satisfaction Among Bulgarian Practitioners — Christopher Varadon, Florida — This study explores job satisfaction among Bulgarian public relations practitioners in the light of the four models of public relations-press agentry/publicity, public information, two-way asymmetrical and two-way symmetrical in positive (real–life) and normative (ideal) settings. In addition, this study tests integral models of craft vs. professional public relations. Findings suggest that Bulgarian practitioners are dealing with both craft and professional models in their daily business, but aspire to revert only to the professional model.
Public Relations 2003 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
A (Re)Conceived Feminist Paradigm for Public Relations and its Application to the Theory or Organization-Public Relations • Linda Aldoory, Maryland and Elizabeth Toth, Syracuse • This review essay sought to advance the use of a feminist paradigm in the research and understanding of the practice of public relations. Work by feminist scholars is substantial, but must move beyond androcentric principles and alienation from public relations scholars who do not conduct feminist research or do not consider themselves feminist. This essay posits that five concepts from the feminist paradigm should enrich and advance knowledge about public relations: analysis of gender, power, diversity, ethics/values, and reflexivity.
A “Dynamic” Public Relations Case Class: I Don’t Know Anything About Science and You Want Me to Say What? • b j Altschul, American • A dynamic approach to part of the public relations case studies class facilitates student mastery of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Using a combination of asynchronous learning for research and discussion, role-playing and in-class Socratic Dialogue for negotiation and conflict management, and culminating in a mini-campaign, student teams represent stakeholder clients with widely divergent perspectives on a controversial topic in the news, a scientific issue that affects daily life and communication of strategic policy decisions.
The Relationship between Corporate Philanthropic Activity and Corporate Financial Impact: Getting Beyond the Inconsistent Results of Previous Studies • Jiyang Bae and Margarete Rooney Hall, Florida • The main purpose of this paper is to re-examine the relationship between corporate philanthropic activity and its impact on corporate financial performance. Several scholars have tried to measure the relationship. But they have not produced consistent results because of methodological inconsistencies. After modifying three methodological factors as potentially creating the inconsistent results, this study suggests that corporate philanthropic activity does partially affect the corporate bottom line.
The Role of Clients in Public Relations Campaign Courses • Vince Benigni, College of Charleston, I-Huei Cheng and Glen Cameron, Missouri • Extending Benigni and Cameron(1999), this study provides a current review of teaching methods for the public relations campaigns course based on a national survey. In addition to offering up-to-date descriptions of how the campaigns course is constructed and valued in public relations programs, this study analyzed what may be important factors that influence the course outcomes.
The Gray Areas of Ethical Decision-making The Emergence of an Ethical Action Continuum Among Public Relations Practitioners • Lois A. Boyton, North Carolina • This paper explores the action taken by public relations practitioners when confronted with ethical situations. In-depth interviews were conducted to ascertain actions taken by public relations practitioners within a decision-making process. Findings indicate that each practitioner made decisions within the context of a decision-making role. Additionally, the analysis reveals an ethical action continuum that addresses not only the extremes of acting ethically or unethically, but also intermediary stages of consensus, compromise, and opting out.
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly of How the General Public Views PR Practitioners: The Results of a Hybrid Survey/Experiment Employing a Nationwide Sample • Coy Callison, Texas Tech • Public perception of PR practitioners was measured using a telephone survey with a source manipulation experiment interwoven into a standard opinion poll. The nationwide sample (N=593) revealed that sources affiliated with the organization on whose behalf they speak are viewed more negatively than unaffiliated sources. Additionally, PR practitioners were judged no more critically than other affiliated sources. Finally, a multi-item measure of public relations in general demonstrated that perceptions of practitioners are stable across demographics.
The Use of Persuasive Appeals and PR in Travel/Tourism Post-9/11 • Ann R. Carden, SUNY-Fredonia • This paper examines the effect of 9/11 on the types of persuasive appeals travel destinations are using to adjust to changing travel patterns and on the amount of public relations used in promotion. An exploratory study of 46 public relations practitioners in the travel and tourism industry found that entertainment and humor, rather than factual appeals, were being used by more destinations, and that public relations efforts had increased, while marketing and advertising efforts decreased.
When [Professional] Worlds Collide: The Implications of Kasky V. Nike for Public Relations Practice • Erik L. Collins, Christopher S. MacDonald and Michael Witkoski, South Carolina • This paper examines the past and present status of commercial speech protection in the United States, the nature of Nike Corporation’s campaign defending its overseas labor practices, the legal controversy these efforts created culminating in Kasky v. Nike, and what the landscape of protection for public relations speech may resemble after a decision is rendered by the Supreme Court of the United States.
The Public Relations Internship Experience: A Comparison of Student and Site Supervisor Perspectives • Emma Daugherty, California State-Long Beach • Internships are seen as valuable learning experiences for students by the public relations academy, including the Commission on Public Relations Education, the Public Relations Student Society of America, and The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. Still, with all the importance placed on experiential-learning experiences for public relations, journalism, and mass communication students, scant literature exists on the subject. Much of the literature is anecdotal or descriptive in nature.
Describing Volunteerism: The Theory of Unified Responsibility • Mohan J Dutta-Bergman, Purdue • In recent years, non-profit organizations have faced an increasing challenge in recruiting volunteers. Proposing the theory of unified responsibility, the paper argues that a sense of responsibility emanates across the personal and social domains of individuals that volunteer. Drawing a psychographic profile of the volunteer, this paper explores the role of dieting, exercising, consumerism, and environmental consciousness. Strategic applications for recruiting volunteers are suggested based on the formative research.
A Public Relations View of Employee Benefits Communication • Alan R. Freitag and Gaelle Picherit-Duthler, North Carolina-Charlotte • Management and administration of employee benefits rightfully fall under the purview of the organization’s human resource department. So, too, has responsibility for benefits communication, though human resource managers are not necessarily the best qualified to administer a communication effort. The researchers use data from two surveys to show the criticality of benefits to recruiting, retention and motivation of quality employees, the prevalence of particular communication approaches and channels, the perceived effectiveness of those channels, and employees’ media preferences in regard to benefits communication.
Nation Building, Branding, and Boosterisim in Cyberspace: A Quantitative Content Analysis of Sub-Saharan Africa Presidential Websites • T. Kenn Gaither, North Carolina • This study is a quantitative content analysis of the 8 official English-language, Sub-Saharan Africa presidential websites to determine how these sites relate to public relations practices and traditional propaganda theory. Most propaganda theory research has dichotomized propaganda through the use of nominal labels such as “good” propaganda and “bad” propaganda. This study obviates this notion by considering propaganda as related to, and distantly part of, public relations practices and international government relations.
Integrating Editorial Presentation and Public Relations Publications: New Frontiers for Convergence and Collaborative Learning • Jennifer George-Palilonis, Robert S. Pritchard and Betsey Hatch, Ball State • Graphic journalists and public relations specialists are often compelled to work with a broad array of specialists and experts in writing, reporting, advertising, graphic design, public relations, photography. However, in the controlled environment of the classroom, it’s often difficult to emulate the cross-disciplinary collaboration necessary to effectively teach these communication skills. This paper provides a case study and analysis of one such project that served as an experiment in collaborative teaching and learning.
Prepared for Practice? Student Perceptions about Requirements and Preparation for Public Relations Practice • Karla K. Gower and Bryan H. Reber, Alabama • An online survey was administered to 117 junior and senior public relations majors at seven American universities. Students strongly affirmed skills and understandings identified in previous studies as important to the practice of public relations. When asked about their preparedness in the same areas, their responses differed significantly suggesting at least some feelings of lack of preparation for professional practice in some areas. Respondents also suggested an understanding of the organizational role of public relations practitioners.
Congressional Press Secretaries: A Survey of Their Relationships with Reporters and Views of Media Coverage • Ethnie Groves and Jennifer Greer, Nevada-Reno • This survey investigated who congressional press secretaries are, what they think of reporters, and how they view congressional news coverage. The 173 responses indicated that press secretary demographics have barely changed since the 1980s, their relationships with reporters are positive, and they don’t give high marks to coverage of Congress. Relationships and views of media coverage were partially related, and significant demographic differences emerged on how press secretaries relate to the press.
PRSA: Scale Development for Exploring the Cross-Cultural Impetus of Public Relations Strategies • Yi-Hui, National Cheng- Chi University-Taiwan • The purpose of this paper is to develop a cross-cultural, multiple-item scale for measuring public relations strategies, i.e., the Public Relations Strategy Assessment (referred to as PRSA). The scale was developed not only to fulfill the standards of reliability and validity in measurement, but also to acquire cross-cultural comparability. After a discussion of the conceptualization and operationalization of the dimensions of public relations strategies, the procedures used in constructing and refining a multiple-item scale to measure the construct are described.
How to Measure Organization-public Relationships: Measurement Validation in a Company-retailer Relationship • Samsup Jo, Florida • In spite of attempts to develop operational measurements of organization-public relationships, the development of global public relations has been limited in other cultural contexts. The basic premise of this study supposes that global relational elements can be found when an organization engages in organization-public relationships. For this study, a setting for an organization-public relationship is Samsung Electronics located in South Korea and its retailers. Two hundred fourteen retailers and two hundred forty seven Samsung managers in Korea participated in this study.
Nonprofit Organizations’ Use of the World Wide Web: Are they Sufficiently Fulfilling Organizational Goals? • Seok Kang and Hanna E. Norton, Arkansas Tech • This study explores nonprofit organizations’ Web sites to determine the extent to which the organizations utilize benefits of the Web to accomplish their organizational goals. A sample of the 100 largest NPOs in the United States was used for the study. Results found that the selected NPOs were effectively using the Web to present traditional public relations materials and connect with publics. However, the organizations were largely unsuccessful in making interactive, relational communications with publics.
Relationship Maintenance Strategies on Websites • Eyun- Jung Ki, Florida • This study conducted a content analysis of 2002 Fortune 500 company Web sites to explore how corporations strategically and effectively manage relationships with their publics by utilizing their Websites. Adopting relationship maintenance strategies such as positivity, openness, sharing of task, networking and access, this study revealed that openness was most commonly evident at the highest level of the Web sites, while networking was measured least frequently and the lowest level.
Examining the PRSA Code of Ethics: Toward Ethical Advocacy • Hyo-Sook Kim, Maryland • This paper aimed to examine the PRSA Code of Ethics and to suggest necessary change that would help public relations achieve one of its goals: ethical profession. In particular, the primary interest is in specifying more clearly public relations as ethical advocacy. For this purpose, the grounds for discussion were set by exploring the following questions: What is a profession? Is public relations recognized as a profession?
Exploring the Effects of Organization-Public Relationships (OPRs) on Attitude toward the Organization, Brand, and Purchase Intention • Jeesun Kim, Soobum Lee and ByengHee Chang, Florida • This study investigated the effects of organization-public relationships (OPRs) on attitude toward the organization (Ao), brand (Ab), and purchase intention (P1). For this purpose, this study devised an integrated model which holds that the effects of OPRs on PT are mediated by Ao and Ab and that the effect of Ao is mediated by Ab. Estimated coefficients and model fit indices by SEM showed this model is appropriate. Comparisons with competing models confirmed these results.
Exploring Public Relations Agency Roles in Korea: An Application of Grunig’ Excellence Theory • Cheolhan Lee, Missouri • The purpose of this study is to explore the expectations public relations practitioners and clients have of the role of public relations in Korea. This paper examines Grunig’s Excellence Theory of Public Relations whether it can be applied to the practices of public relations agencies in Korea. The theory suggests effective public relations should follow these characteristics such as (1) public relations practitioners should be managers, (2) practitioners should be practiced according to the two-way symmetrical model, and (3) organizations’ woridviews should be symmetrical.
Media Relations in Korea: Cheong between Journalist and PR Practitioner • Jonghyuk Lee and Dan Berkowitz, Iowa • This study applied the concept of Cheong – the fundamental foundation for Korean relationships – to analyze the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners in Korea. Research drew on in-depth interviews with ten pairs of journalists and practitioners. Respondents said they felt Cheong through common experiences and that Cheong provided a positive force for their interaction. Further, journalists and practitioners said that Cheong did not bring negative effects to the role of journalism in a democratic society.
Practicing Public Relations in China: A Case Study of a Multinational Public Relations Firm • Yi Luo, Maryland • This study of a multinational public relations firm in China seeks to examine (a) how public relations is currently practiced in China, (b) the application of the two generic principles of public relations: two-way symmetrical communication and support for diversity, and (c) a multinational public relations firm’s sensitivity to societal culture. The results supported the global public relations theory, specifically two-way symmetrical communication and support for diversity for one multinational public relations firm in China.
Utilizing John Bawls’ “A Theory of Justice” To Examine the Social Utility of Contemporary Public Relations • David Martinson, Florida International • This paper asserts that efforts to examine the social utility of contemporary public relations must go beyond talk of a injecting views in a “marketplace of ideas.” It examines the social utility of public relations from a distributive/ social justice perspective based on the work of the widely respected American philosopher John Rawis.
Third Party Endorsement Influence on Perceptions of Social Marketing Campaign Attitudes, Credibility, Effectiveness, and Involvement • Jenson Moore and Terry Kinney, Minnesota • This study examines the public relations concept of third party endorsement in regards to a social marketing campaign. It was hypothesized that third party endorsements would not influence the perceived legitimacy of the campaign. In order to test this, a 2X3 (advertisement appeal type: fear, humor by third party endorsement type: no endorsement, supporting, opposing) experimental design was used. The findings supported the assumption that third party endorsements do not significantly influence perceptions.
Treading Through aCrisis: Exploring How Bridgestone/Firestone and the Media Framed an Issue and an Image • Bestey Neibergall, Minnesota • Bridgestone/Firestone faced a nationally newsworthy crisis when vehicles equipped with its tires were connected to at least 30 deaths. How media frame such crises potentially impacts public opinion and future viability of corporations. Therefore, stakes are high for public relations strategists to effectively manage crisis messages. The purpose of this study is to explore what roles Bridgestone/Firestone and the media played in communicating complicated events, and to what extent Bridgestone/Firestone’s corporate image changed.
The Influence of Gender on Publicity and Media Relations: Differences in Discourse • Kim Newman, Syracuse • This study examined to what extent media relations is influenced by gender, hypothesizing that women focus more than men on interpersonal relationships. A national email survey of PR practitioners included the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (B SRI) and “Perceived Masculinity” Scale (PMQ). Findings showed practitioners perceived certain traits as gendered yet there was no significant difference in how they rated themselves. Results indicated practitioners tended to exhibit what is defined as feminine behavior.
Protracted Strategic Risk Communication: A Longitudinal Analysis of Community’s Zones of Meaning • Michael J. Palenchar, Florida and Robert L. Heath, Houston • This study replicates and extends elements of Heath and Abel’s (1996) and Heath and Palenchar’s (2000) analysis of the impact of sustained strategic risk communication. Through random telephone surveys (n=400), the authors confirmed and strengthened some of the conclusions of the two previous studies in relation to identifying and better understanding community zones of meaning. Identifiable community zones of meaning related to risk perception are becoming apparent.
Communicating for Technical Change: Business to Business communication with Small Manufacturing Firms • Danielle C. Pontiff, Louisiana-Lafayette • In business-to-business public relations, practitioners are often asked to encourage change in the adoption of new technologies. This study focuses on the challenge faced by business-to-business public relations practitioners who work to encourage the adoption of e-business applications among small manufacturing firms. While the adoption and use of e-business applications have been increasingly encouraged in the manufacturing industry, research indicates that smaller firms are less likely to adopt and use technology unless they perceive beneficial characteristics.
Legitimate Strategy versus Smoke Screen: Framing Philip Morris’ Name Change to Altria • Cristina Popescu, Florida • Using the theory of framing in constructing and maintaining corporate reputations, this paper addresses the case of Philip Morris Companies, which changed its name to Altria Group in January 2003. The research compares the frames used by the company to justify the name change with the framing used by the mainstream media to reflect the event, and the reaction of various publics published online. Different frames are exemplified and implications are provided.
Web Power: Examining Practitioners’ World Wide Web Use and Its Effects on Their Decision-Making Power in Public Relations • Lance V. Porter, Buena Vista Pictures, The Walt Disney Company and Lynne M. Sallot, Georgia • Using a national email survey, this study examines how public relations practitioners are using the World Wide Web to gain power in their organizations. To measure power, the study uses Finkelstein’s (1992) conceptualizations and operationalizations of power, derived from “Upper Echelons” theory from the strategic management literature. Results suggest that practitioners are effectively using the World Wide Web to some degree, and that the Web will play an increasingly prominent part in the strategic practice of public relations in the future.
Symmetric Stance versus Asymmetric Public Relations Strategy: A Case Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Programs • Qi Qiu and Glen T. Cameron, Missouri • Applying the excellence theory and taxonomy of message function to Avon and Ford’s two breast cancer programs, the discourse analysis of corporate discourse and media coverage finds that the programmatic context proposes a special case for the theory. In both real-life cases, the stance that balances public and organization interests is symmetric, following from the original philanthropic impetus.
Building Public Relations Definitions Typologies Among Practictioners and Educators • Bryan H. Reber and Chandler Harris, Alabama • Twenty-six public relations leaders – practitioners and educators – sorted 30 words to build definitions of public relations and identify typologies by definition. Four definitional factors emerged – the Dialogic, Deliberative, Evaluative and Ethical. The Deliberative and Evaluative factors were dominated by practitioners and educators respectively. Three factors defined public relations as strategic. At least two factors defined public relations two-way, responsive, tactical, practical, managerial or honest.
Maybe We Should Just Agree to Disagree? Journalism and Public Relations Educators’ Attitudes Toward Public Relations and the Degree of Coorientational Accuracy that Exists Between Them • Thomasena Shaw and Bonnie Riechert, Tennessee • The literature indicates that a complex relationship exists between journalists and public relations practitioners; can the same be said for their relationship in the academy? To what extent is behavior based on respondents’ personal constructions of the world and perceptions of orientations of those around them, however (in)accurate? A web-based survey was sent to 768 journalism and public relations educators. Surprisingly, the former provided greater evidence of coorientational accuracy than their public relations counterparts.
Is Media Relations All There is to Public Relations? Differences in Perceptions Between Public Relations and Journalism Educators • Thomasena Shaw and Candace White, Tennessee-Knoxville • This study explores whether journalism and public relations programs belong in the same academic department, and if academic programs may be in part responsible for perpetuating myths and stereotypes and contributing to negative perceptions of the public relations profession. A web-based survey was sent to 768 journalism and public relations educators. The study found that journalism educators do not differ as substantially and negatively in their opinions of public relations as the literature may suggest.
The Effects of Consumer Knowledge on Information Processing Toward the PR Editorials • Alex Wang, Emerson College • This study investigates how consumers first used different processing strategies, corresponded to their knowledge structure, to process and evaluate information and then formed their attitudes toward the PR editorials (APR) and purchase intent. The results first reveal that consumers’ knowledge structure do not seem to change the way they perceive how credible the PR editorials are. The findings also suggest that both category-based and piecemeal processing enhance consumers’ recalls of selling points from the PR editorials.
An Empirical Analysis of the Influence of Perceived Attributes of Publics on Public Relations Strategy Use and Effectiveness • Kelly Page Werder, South Florida • This study replicated and extended previous research by examining the influence of problem recognition, constraint recognition, involvement, and goal compatibility on use of informative, facilitative, persuasive, and cooperative problem solving strategies. Members of PRSA (n=403) were surveyed using direct mail and online modes of administration. Results indicate that perceived attributes of publics significantly influence public relations strategy use in organizations. In addition, attributes of publics were significant predictors of strategy effectiveness.
Organization-Public Relationships, Organizational Representations, and the Overall Evaluation of Organizational Performance: A Causal Model • Sung-Un Yang and James E. Grunig, Maryland • The purpose of this paper is to explain causal relationships among organization-public relationships, organizational representations, and evaluation of organizational performances. Authors posited that active communication behavior and familiarity are correlated causes of organization-public relationships, while the quality of organization-public relationships affects the overall evaluation of organizational performance directly as well as through organizational representations. To test this causal model, five Korean organizations were studied with 317 residents in a metropolitan city of Korea.
Press Release and World System: How the U.S. Major Newspapers Use Press Releases from Different Countries? • Juyan Zhang, Missouri • Using the agenda building theory and the three-tiered world system theory, this research examined how the U.S. major newspapers used the press releases from different countries. The research found that press releases from the semi-periphery nations were more used than those from the core nations and the periphery nations. Press releases from the core nations were more used than those from the periphery nations. A majority of the quoted press releases appeared at least in the New York Times.
Using Celebrity Endorsers to Increase Publicity Effects of Marketing Communications • Xinshu Zhao, North Carolina; Hyun Seung Jin and Soontae An, Kansas State • This paper investigates the effects of celebrity endorsement on the effectiveness of a televised commercial in terms of 1) the publicity that the commercial receives from the media, 2) TV viewers’ attitude toward the commercial and 3) TV viewers’ memory of the commercial. The researchers recorded the commercials aired during five Super Bowl broadcasts; 1992-1996, interviewed randomly selected viewers for their reactions toward the commercials, and analyzed the news coverage of the commercials.
<< 2003 Abstracts
Public Relations 2004 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
Shared Involvement and risk perceptions in responding to bioterrorism: An extension of the situational theory of publics • Linda Aldoory and Mark Van Dyke, University of Maryland • This study extended the situational theory of publics into risk communication. Risk communication theories were integrated here to measure their usefulness in extending the situational theory. Focus group participants were given hypothetical news scenarios about a terrorist threat on a U.S. food product. Participants discussed problem recognition, level of involvement, constraint recognition, fear, risk, threat, and social approval. Findings indicated “shared” involvement decreased perceived threat. Perceived susceptibility was central to involvement, and fear arousal was a constraint.
Toward an apologetic ethic: A casistical approach • Sandra L. Borden and Keith Michael Hearit, Western Michigan University • Most approaches to crisis management ethics apply existing ethical theories deductively to the crisis management context. This essay takes an inductive approach by using casuistry to first specify the context that gives concrete meaning to ethical principles. The result of this analysis is the development, in paradigmatic form, of the content (what should be said) and the manner (how it should be said) of ideal ethical apologetic communication when organizations are guilty of wrongdoing.
Cutting out the middleman: Must public relations messages be filtered through traditional news media to gain credibility? • Coy Callison and Norman E. Youngblood, Texas Tech University • Credibility of information presented through various media was examined experimentally (N=240). Results suggest that information presented on Web sites, regardless of host, lacks credibility compared to information presented in traditional media. Likewise, information presented by public relations media is viewed as less credible than information presented by news media, independent of format. Most important to practitioners, information relayed via corporate Web sites lacks credibility compared to information distributed by other presentation formats.
Public nudity on cell phones: Managing conflict in crisis situations • Sooyoung Cho and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • Using a case study of news coverage to recount a fast-moving, dramatic marketing PR incident that recently occurred in South Korea, the contingency theory of conflict management and crisis management strategies are integrated to examine how crisis is communicated and managed in a very short period of time. Several types of strategies were utilized by contending parties through the various stages of the crisis life cycle. We found evidence for a new contingent variable that should be added in the matrix of contingent factors—the importance of Internet community and Netizens as organized and influential publics. Netizens played an important role throughout the crisis period in changing the organization’s stance from advocacy to accommodation.
The First Amendment protection for corporate speech concerning business practices: The implications of Nike vs. Kasky • Jounghwa Choi, Michigan State University • In 2003, the Nike v. Kasky case alarmed public relations professionals, because the case questioned the First Amendment protection afforded for core communication activities. This study presents an overview of constitutional history of corporate speech in the Supreme Court and discusses Nike v. Kasky in terms of its impacts on corporate speech and public relations practices. In particular, this paper examines constitutional rationales applied in the Kasky court and debates around it. Several noticeable trends in the Supreme Court’s decisions on corporate speech and implications for public relations professionals are discussed.
The importance of appearing competent: An analysis of corporate impression management strategies on the World Wide Web • Colleen Connolly-Ahern and S. Camille Broadway, University of Florida • Web sites have become important impression management tools for corporations, because they represent a constantly available source of information for an organization’s publics. This study uses quantitative content analysis to assess current corporate impression management techniques, using Jones (1990) typology of impression management strategies: ingratiation, competence, exemplification, supplication and intimidation. Findings indicate that corporate Web sites focus on competence and exemplification strategies, and that they are not using the full associative powers of the Web.
How successful are communication strategies? A framing analysis of political PR during the national debate on immigration in Germany • Romy Froehlich and Burkgard Rüdiger • Our study elaborates on the question how to measure PR success. Our study examines media coverage and political PR during the national debate on immigration that occurred in Germany between May 2000 and March 2002. The findings indicate that it is worthwhile to invest in developing a framing-based instrument for the comparison of meanings and contexts instead of depending merely on comparisons of topics or issues.
Crisis management’s new role in educational settings • Barbara Gainey, Kennesaw State University • This paper explores the status of crisis management in educational settings, focusing on crisis management preparation in South Carolina public school districts and the extent to which these districts are “crisis-ready” organizations. A new framework is proposed for analyzing the crisis-ready status of these organizations. The three Cs—crisis management planning, communication (two-way/relationship-building), and cultural leadership within the school community—are seen as essential, interconnected elements of successful crisis management in the 21st century.
Writing and the public relations curriculum: Practitioner perceptions versus pedagogy • Marie C. Hardin, West Georgia University; and Donnalyn Pompper, Florida State University • Educators and practitioners seem to agree that writing is a public relations curriculum fundamental. Value perceptions deviate, however, in assessments of quality and degree of attention to writing in the classroom. An examination of the writing requirements of 152 ASJMC accredited public relations programs indicate that only a little more than half (57%) require a news writing course. Fewer require a public relations writing course (51%). Nearly 200 public relations practitioners were surveyed as to their perceptions of college public relations educators’ writing emphasis. This exploratory study’s findings suggest that practitioners believe both news writing and public relations writing classes should be mandatory among public relations students; they offer slightly stronger support for news writing.
The impact of CEO reputation, corporate credibility, and brand loyalty in relationship building • ChangHyun Jin, University of Florida • The purpose of this paper is to identify the effect of CEO Reputation, corporate credibility, and brand loyalty in relationship building. This study found that corporate credibility has a positive impact on brand loyalty and the relationship building. The results indicate that CEO reputation and corporate credibility had a positive impact of brand loyalty. Furthermore, brand loyalty also important played a role in relationship building. Thus, CEO Reputation, corporate credibility and brand loyalty are likely to affect by moderating in relationship building.
Different means to the same end: A comparative contingency analyses of Singapore and Chinese governments’ management of the perceptions and emotions of their multiple public during the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) crisis • Yan Jin, Augustine Pang and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • Using content analyses of SARS news coverage in both Singapore and China, the contingency theory of conflict management and current crisis management literature were integrated to examine how crisis was communicated at the macro levels by the two governments, what were the stances taken, and what strategies were used to manage their multiple publics. Findings showed that although both countries, which shared similar cultures and media systems, perceived the crisis similarly in terms of severity and attribution, the dominant factors and motivations influencing each of their stances and strategies between advocacy and accommodation were different.
Ready for the rainy day: A case study of labeling issue management in the cosmetic industry • Yan Jin, I-Huei Cheng and Anca Micu, University of Missouri at Columbia • To demonstrate how a crisis management model can be applied, particularly to the state of pre-crisis, the current case study analyzed the media coverage of the recent labeling issues that imposed threats to cosmetic industry. In April 2000 European Union (EU) announced that all cosmetic products would be required to fully disclose their ingredients and allergens, beginning in March 11,2005, which set cosmetics industry at an early stage of crisis. Based on Coombs’ (1999) model, crisis signals were detected by locating media-coverage key issues and evaluating information on industry-stakeholder relationship. The reactions of activist groups were also assessed in terms of their strategies and impacts.
A theoretical perspective on “fear” as an organizational motivator for initiating public relations activities • Jangyul Robert Kim, University of Florida • This exploratory study identifies the correlation between fear and the public relations activities of an organization. A survey of forty public relations professionals in Florida was conducted Fear was identified as a critical causal factor that motivates an organization to initiate or undertake public relations activities. The effect of fear on public relations activities of an organization differed by public relations area, by degree of fear, by public/stakeholder and by type of fear/threat.
First- & second-level agenda building & agenda-setting effects: Exploring the linkages among candidate press releases, media coverage, & public opinion during the 2002 Florida gubernatorial election • Spiro Kiousis, Michael Mitrook, Xu Wu and Trent Seltzer • This study explores the role of candidate news releases, media content, and public opinion in shaping the salience of political issues and candidate images during the 2002 Florida gubernatorial election. The study analyzed 77 public relations releases, 1,538 newspaper stories, and public opinion data from a statewide survey of 572 respondents. Significant correlations were found supporting both first- and second-level agenda-building and agenda-setting effects, working to inform strategies of public relations practitioners involved in political campaigns.
Friends in high places: States legislators as targets of public school PR campaigns • Tien-Tsung Lee, Washington State University; and Mark M. Havens, Havens CPR • State legislators are an essential public for school public relations efforts at any time, but especially during a state budget crisis. To identify effective ways to target this audience, a mail survey of all 105 Idaho state senators and House representatives was launched in May 2002. Findings reveal the most common channels through which legislators receive information about public schools, their self-estimated level of knowledge on various issues, and factors affecting their knowledge. Because legislators rarely rely on the news media for information on public schools, school PR campaigns should not utilize this channel. Alternatives are discussed.
News release flow-through: News release/news article LSA metric • Ernest F. Martin, Jr., Virginia Commonwealth University • This paper describes the exploration of latent semantic analysis (LSA) as possible automated, statistically reliable metric for measuring the degree to which a particular news release influences a particular news article or story. In the exploratory study, LSA provides a useful evaluative metric to indicate whether the news release impacted a news article. Additionally, the LSA metric is useful for relative scoring—potentially indicating strong, medium or weak coherence between news releases and news stories.
From liftoff to landing: How NASA’s crisis communications affected media coverage following the Challenger and Columbia tragedies • Ryan M. Martin and Lois Boynton, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • NASA’s public relations effort following the Challenger explosion in 1986 is considered an example of crisis communications failure. After the 2003 Columbia disaster, however, NASA was praised for its successful handling of the crisis. This paper identifies how four newspapers presented NASA’s crisis communication efforts following the two crises, utilizing crisis communication concepts associated with stakeholder theory. Results showed that NASA applied these concepts more effectively and received more positive coverage following the Columbia disaster than the Challenger disaster.
Attitudes and aptitudes: Gender differences and outlook on the future by incoming public relations students • Michael A. Mitrook, University of Florida • A national survey is used to explore the attitudes and capabilities of men and women at the earliest stage of the decision-making process that brings them into the public relations field. Female undergraduates and particularly those majoring in public relations have the aptitudes and most of the requisite attitudes needed to become public relations managers. Women were more interested in symmetrical communication than men, offering more versatility and sophistication for the field. However, they appear disinclined to take on the managerial role, envisioning a less-focused career than men envision and opting for technician over managerial positions.
Readers’ preferences for graphic designs by age, generation and life strategies • Linda P. Morton, Oklahoma University • This study examined graphic design decisions by readers’ age, generation and life stages. It used a visual instrument containing three designs for each of twelve design elements. Communicators comprised the 232 subjects for this study. Chi-squares indicated that preferences differed by age for four design elements: informal balance, proximity, rules and typesetting; by generations for four design elements: informal balance, proximity, rules, and typesetting; by life stages for three design elements: rhythm, rules and typesetting.
Research, measurement & evaluation: Public relations educators assess and report current teaching practices • Julie O’Neal, Texas Christian University • This study secured feedback from public relations educators regarding their teaching practices related to research, measurement, and evaluation and their assessments of those practices. One hundred seventeen educators participated in a web-based survey. Although most educators believe a stand-alone research methods course should be offered, less than half of respondents’ units offer a separate course. Most respondents don’t think that educators are doing a good job teaching research competency. Implications for public relations educators are offered.
Exploring global public relations in China’s context • Lan Ni, University of Maryland • This study explores global public relations through China’s cultural context. Culture is first examined through observing dimensional variability together with cultural members’ native meaning making, and then used to explore the influence on both the actual practice and application of principles of excellent public relations in China. Power distance and interpersonal relationship are cultural factors with the most impact. Findings basically support major principles and two additional suggestions are made for the particular cultural context.
Shouting in the media’s deaf ear: A qualitative analysis of the NAACP’s public relations messages in the post-election debacle of 2002 • Stephanye Perkins, University of North Florida • When the contest for the U. S. presidency went into overdrive, the media sought soundbites to put the events in perspective. The NAACP was one of the organizations that sought the media’s ear, but its message of voter disenfranchisement was either drowned in the cacophony or shouted into the media’s deaf ear. This study uses qualitative framing to examine how the nation’s oldest civil rights organization used public relations to deliver its message.
Researching employees’ perception of benefits communication: A communication inquiry on channel preferences, understanding, decision-making, and benefits satisfaction • Gaelle Picherit-duthler and Alan R. Freitag, University of North Carolina at Charlotte • This paper, part of a larger research effort, reports results from a Web-based survey of employees of one organization to examine their perceptions of benefits communication effectiveness. The survey addressed categories of benefits provided, benefits satisfaction, employees’ level of understanding, the decision-making factors driving their benefit choices, and overall effectiveness of communication channels. Results indicated that most employees were satisfied with their benefits communication; ironically, however, many perceived it as a confusing, complicated and sometimes frustrating process.
Conflict and public relations: A hot waste issue in Utah • Kenneth D. Plowman, Brigham Young University • Multiple party negotiations may be the next step in the stream of research combining public relations and conflict resolution. This study undertook a qualitative quasi-experimental design with 11 graduate students taking on different roles in the hot waste issue in Utah. These students framed the issue, defined their self-interests as stakeholders, and then conducted a series of five role plays on the issue. Preliminary findings revealed that contention was the most used strategy, but most often in combination with principled. If those strategies were not successful, then roles players turned to avoidance.
Education and job satisfaction: Toward a normative theory of public relations pedagogy for social change • Donnalyn Pompper, Florida State University • This study investigated how a sample of female African-American public relations practitioners viewed their preparedness for a career that employs few people of color and where even fewer achieve senior-level management status. Focus groups were conducted in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. Little formal research is conducted to evaluate effectiveness of public relations curricula – beyond graduates’ job placement figures. Practitioners report that public relations programs’ failure to address multicultural diversity in the classroom has adversely affected their job satisfaction. A normative theory of public relations pedagogy for social change is offered.
The Internet and litigation public relations • Brian Reber, Karla Gower and Jennifer Robinson, University of Missouri at Columbia • The Internet is an emerging new tool in litigation public relations. This paper explores this new phenomenon of personal litigation Web sites by content analyzing the Web sites of three celebrities who are currently involved in high-profile litigation, Martha Stewart, Richard Scrushy and Michael Jackson. The analysis revealed that standard litigation public relations standards transfer well to the Internet and suggests that such Web sites are a promising means for disseminating and controlling a client’s message.
Value assessment of PRSSA Bateman competition • Cathy Rogers, Loyola University • The competition which the Public Relations Student Society of America initiated in 1973 as a classic case study has changed considerably since its inception. The Bateman Case Study has evolved into a competition where students develop, implement, and evaluate a campaign for a real corporate client. This study includes a survey of PRSSA advisors and a qualitative analysis of winning entries developed since 1999, when the implementation phase was added to the competition.
War and peace between journalists and public relations practitioners: Working together to set, frame and build the public agenda 1991-2003 • Lynne M. Sallot and Elizabeth A. Johnson, University of Georgia • Agenda-setting, framing and agenda-building theoretical frameworks were used to investigate how journalists view their relationships with public relations practitioners by analyzing 381 depth interviews conducted with journalists from 1991 through 2003. Journalists who perceived and accepted practitioners’ roles the most as agenda setters, framers and agenda builders for the media, measured by journalists’ estimates of how much news content uses public relations contacts, reported having better relationships with practitioners and valuing public relations more. On average, journalists estimated that 44% of the content of U.S. news media or the medium for which they worked is subsidized by practitioners.
Managing relationships and reputations in the National Pan-Hellenic Council • Arlana Shields, University of Florida• The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) is the umbrella organization for nine predominately African-American Greek-letter organizations (National Pan-Hellenic Council, 2003). The members of NPHC organizations are the “first full line of defense.” People have a greater chance of interacting with general members than with the organizations’ executive board members. Consequently, how members behave and display the symbols of their organizations is important to managing public-organization relationships and to maintaining the reputations of these organizations.
Occums Razor in the contingency theory: A national survey of PR professional responses to the contingency model • Jae-Hwa Shin, Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia; and Fritz Cropp, Munich, Germany • A random sample of public relations professionals assessed 86 factors in the contingency theory of public relations. This study aims at identifying what contingent factors matter most in public relations practice to provide public relations professionals with a refinement of the contingency factors in public relations activities. Support was found for a matrix of internal factors and external factors affecting public relations practice, and particularly individual factors (i.e., communication competency, ethical value, ability to handle complex problems, problem recognition, familiarity with external public) were identified that affect the contingency undertaken by public relations practitioners in a given situation.
Contingent factors in public relations practice: Modeling generic public relations in Korea • Jae-Hwa Shin, Southern Mississippi University; Jongming Park, Kyung Hee-Korea; and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • This study aims at identifying what factors public relations practitioners perceive as influential to public relations practice and discriminating public relations practitioners by the distinctive factors in a Korean context. It has some decades of history that many scholars argue what public relations “is” or “should be.” With a qualification of Grunig’s study, Cameron and his colleagues proposed that public relations depend on a number of factors. Based on the contingent factors, this paper looks at what contingent factors are influential in Korean public relations practice. It also examines if the generic rule of excellent public relations is being applied to a non-Western country.
Reaching key publics online: University public relations practitioners’ use of the World Wide Web • Deborah A. Silverman, University of Buffalo • The author conducted a content analysis of all 261 American doctorate-granting universities to determine how they are using the World Wide Web to provide information for key publics. The analysis revealed that although most universities have clearly labeled, dedicated newsrooms linked from their home page, content is often limited. Special links on the home page for key publics were most common for alumni and friends; current students; prospective students; and faculty and staff.
Ending a chapter of their lives: A study of disaffiliation in college sororities • Jessalynn Strauss, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • This study examines the process of disaffiliation, the process by which members officially sever ties with their sorority organization. In this study, eight former sorority members were interviewed about their sorority experience, their disaffiliation process, and their thoughts on sorority membership and ex-membership. Information gathered from this study will be used to inform a public relations plan for the Panhellenic sororities at a major Southeastern university to help the sororities improve their communication with the university and its community.
Emergent postmodern approaches to corporate communication strategy • Ursula Ströh, University of Technology, Australia •In this paper I suggest a new approach to corporate communication strategy in line with postmodern theories. I argue for a more participative approach with high ethical and moral meaning creation through action science and research rather than the structured approaches suggested by current corporate communication theorists. I further more call for relationship management based on the basic interpersonal relationship principles where ethics, integrity, trust, openness, and listening skills determine the success of relationships. Organizations that favor their shareholders above other stakeholders and believe that business determines success and drives policy should be replaced with organizations that function as responsible, moral, and honest citizens of a larger environment. This approach ensures a positive reputation for the organization through socially responsible change processes that have relational influences into a larger societal community structure.
To give or not to give: Factors determining alumni intent to make donations as a PR outcome • James C. Tsao and Gary Coll, University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh • This study is significant to those schools and departments seeking to develop segmented fund raising campaigns. Segmented campaigns are those undertaken and carried out by individual schools and departments, supplementary to campus-wide efforts. The majority of journalism and mass communication programs have traditionally relied on their campus development or foundation office to conduct annual mass giving campaigns to the entire population of alumni, including journalism and mass communication graduates. However, such individual and segmented campaigns can be costly because departments cannot benefit much from economies of scale in producing and distributing appeals. Further, the appeals are not likely to be as sophisticated in execution as those developed by campus foundation offices. So it is doubly important for organizations considering segmented fund raising campaigns to identify factors that effectively enhance alumni giving.
Analysis of fund raising models at public historically Black colleges and universities • Natalie Tindall, University of Maryland • This empirical study examined whether public historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) predominately practiced the press agentry, public information, two-way asymmetrical, two-way symmetrical or mixed motive models of fund raising. The findings reported the heavy usage of press agency model of fund raising by advancement officers, replicating a component identified by both Alessandrini (1998) and Kelly (1991; 1995a; 1995b; 1998). The impact of the state appropriations and institutional support on the advancement function indicated the relevance of state and institutional funding to the practice of fund raising and dictated whether fund raising would be an effective component of the organization. The most interesting concepts emerging from the research was the emergence of a mixed motive model of fund raising.
Responding to activism: An experimental analysis of public relations strategy influence on attributes of publics • Kelly Page Werder, University of South Florida • Experimental methods were used to examine the influence of public relations strategies on attributes of publics. Specifically, public relations strategies derived from Hazleton and Long’s public relations process model (1988) were tested to determine strategy influence on problem recognition, level of involvement, constraint recognition, and goal compatibility toward an organization responding to activism. Results indicate that the attributes of problem recognition and level of involvement are influenced by public relations strategies. In addition, the findings of this study support the situational theory of publics; however, items measuring level of involvement and goal compatibility were found to be the strongest predictors of information seeking behavior. Findings indicate that goal compatibility is a predictor of strategy effectiveness.
A qualitative study of military-media relations during the war in Iraq: Investigating embedding, discovering relationship theory in action • David S. Westover, Jr. and Margot Opdycke Lamme, University of Florida • This exploratory, qualitative approach to examining media embedding during the U.S. military’s largest combat operation since the Gulf War afforded an opportunity to establish grounded theory. Instead, what emerged were four of the elements identified in the scholarly literature as central to organization-public relationships: trust, access, exchange, and understanding.
Examining the existence of professional prejudice and discrimination against public relations • Donald K. Wright, South Alabama University • This study of a large sample of public relations educators (n=342) examined attitudes and opinions about the existence of professional prejudice and discrimination in public relations and public relations education. A web-based survey and follow-up interviews were used with a sample selected from members of the Public Relations Division of the AEJMC and the Educators Academy of PRSA. Results found substantial evidence suggesting such prejudice and discrimination exists. Nearly 98 percent of the study’s respondents agreed some people are prejudiced against public relations. More than half (56.6%) of the public relations educator respondents said they have had a dean, director or department chair who was prejudiced against public relations, and many of these administrators evidently have made use of exaggerations and stereotypes about public relations while criticizing it. Results also suggest this prejudice is more pronounced among print journalists and journalism faculty than it is among other groups of communication educators and practitioners.
<< 2004 Abstracts
Public Relations 2005 Abstracts
Public Relations Divisions
TEACHING
Comparison of Indirect Sources of Efficacy Information in Pretesting Messages to Prevent Drunken Driving • Ronald B. Anderson, University of Texas at Austin • This experiment tested the impact of two forms of symbolic modeling and verbal persuasion on self-efficacy beliefs and intentions to prevent a friend from driving drunk. Three efficacy-information public service announcements were produced to raise participants; beliefs in their abilities to intervene successfully: a behavioral-modeling message, which demonstrated the prevention skills; a verbal-modeling message, which described the skills; and a persuasive message, which only encouraged intervention.
Beating the Odds: How the American Football League Used Public Relations to “Win” a War Against a Monopoly • William B. Anderson, University of Scranton • No professional sports group ever achieved acceptance as widespread within a single decade’s span as the American Football League (AFL). This study chronicles how the AFL used public relations strategies and tactics to garner public acceptance, which in turn helped convince the older National Football League to merge with the upstart league.
Overcoming the Stigma of Discrimination: Applying a New Management Philosophy and Integrated Communication To Restore The Reputation Of Denny’s Restaurants • Alik Anso, Richard Nelson and Stephen Matthews • Abstract not available.
The Effect of Prior Corporate Reputation on Public Attitudes Toward a Company • Public Suspicion as a Mediating Variable • Jiyang Bae, University of Missouri-Columbia • This study attempted to verify whether prior corporate reputation affects public perceptions toward corporate philanthropic messages and ultimately affects public attitudes toward the company. The study’s five hypotheses were all supported with an experiment method. 72 undergraduate students were participated in this study. Participants inferred corporate charitable giving as a mutually beneficial activity when a company had a good reputation (H 1). Participants inferred corporate charitable giving as a self-interested activity when the company had a bad reputation (H2).
Cultural Awareness: Hispanic Public Relations Practitioners’ Perceptions of Effective Communication with Hispanic Publics • Cristina Proañlo Beazley, University of Louisiana at Lafayette • As the Hispanic publics continue to grow in the United States, public relations departments must be prepared to communicate effectively with them. This exploratory study examines cultural awareness from the viewpoint of Hispanic public relations practitioners who communicate with Hispanic publics as part of their practice. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with eleven Hispanic public relations practitioners who work with Hispanic publics.
Building Relationships with Child Publics: Study of the Content of Nutrition Websites for Children • Denise Bortree, University of Florida • Abstract not available.
Finding a Conceptual Basis for Communicating about Terrorism: Is Terrorism ‘Extreme’ Activism? How do we Respond Ethically? • Shannon A. Bowen, University of Houston • Abstract not available.
Engineering the Continuation of a Non-judgmental U.S.-China Relations in the Tumultuous Post-Cold War World: An Overview of the Chinese Public Relations Campaign in the U.S. in 1990s Xiaowei Chen, Louisiana State University • This case study of the Chinese public relations campaign examines the geopolitical-ideopolitical context, identifies the key stakeholders, interprets their message strategy and issue management, and finally, illustrates how the Chinese public relations contributes to the delinkage of the U.S.-China trade from human rights issue.
A Study of Journalists’ Perception of Candidates’ Websites and Their Relationships with the Campaign Organization in Taiwan’s 2004 Presidential Election • Yi-Ning Katherine Chen, National Cheng-Chi University • This investigation is designed to gain insight into what the perceptions are for journalists in using a candidate’s website as a news gathering tool. Drawing upon the somewhat limited research to date, this study also seeks to explore how journalists’ perception of the websites affects their relationships with the campaign organization. The results show that the some of the perceptions of such websites, as related to the relationship components, suggest that a candidate’s website may enhance this relationship.
Closing the Deal: The Use of Snow & Benfords’s Core Framing Functions on Activist Websites • Erik L. Collins, University of South Carolina, Lynn M. Zoch, University of Miami and Daniel C. Walsh, University of South Carolina • The researchers used an adapted version of the core framing functions model first introduced by Snow and Benford (1988) in conjunction with a content analysis of Websites to discover whether activist organizations are using methods described in the theory to strengthen the communication on their Websites.
Ethical Discussion in Peer Reviewed Public Relations Journals: A Content Analysis • Benton Danner and Michael A. Mitrook, University of Florida • Content analysis concerning the nature of ethical discussion in peer reviewed public relations journals was performed on a total of 721 articles from four scholarly journals covering the period 1998-2004.
An Evolutionary Model of Organization-Activist Relationships • Elizabeth Dougall • University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill • The propositions of an evolutionary model of organization-activist relationships are advanced anticipating associations between variations in the public opinion environment of an organizational population and the evolution of organization-activist relationships. Variations are described using four dimensions: stability (turnover of issues), complexity (the number of issues in the issue set), intensity (volume of media coverage), and direction (favorability of media coverage for the focal population).
Legal Implications of IMC for Public Relations •Kathy R. Fitzpatrick, DePaul University• The application of First Amendment commercial speech doctrine to integrated marketing communication (IMC) demonstrates that the integration of public relations with advertising and marketing may dilute the constitutional protection afforded corporate speech. This analysis of U.S. Supreme Court decisions shows that by combining political expression, i.e., public relations, with commercial expression, i.e., advertising and marketing, a corporation may expand the range of communications that may be defined and regulated as commercial speech.
The Status of Public Relations Research in the Leading Journals between 1995 and 2004 • Eyun-Jung Ki and Hyoungkoo Khang, University of Florida • This study analyzes the trends, patterns and rigors of research studies pertaining to public relations through a content analysis of published public relations articles from two leading public relations journals between 1995 and 2004. Four hundred and three articles from the two journals were collected. Each article was coded by the year of its publication, the name of the journal, author(s)’ name, affiliation, and country of author(s)’ affiliation, research topics, research methods, sampling methods, response rates, intercoder reliability, and statistical analysis.
Exploring Town-Gown Relations: Community Relations in a University Setting • Sei-Hill Kim, Brigitta R. Brunner and Margaret Fitch-Hauser, Auburn University • Analyzing data from a telephone survey of local residents, this study examined the role of community relations in higher education. Our data supported the idea that various contributions to local communities may produce a favorable pubic image of a university. More importantly, residents who were more aware of the contributions showed greater willingness to support the university.
The News Release Format For The 21 Century: A Receiver-Based Model For The Electronic Medium • Thomas Klipstone, University of South Carolina • A content analysis of electronic news releases shows that electronic news releases are basically an electronic version of traditional print public relations material that is not being formatted or structured to fit the qualities and advantages of the electronic medium. This study reviews the current status of the electronic news release format and suggests an electronic news release format suited to take advantage of the qualities of the receiver-based medium.
Christina’s Doin’ It… So Should I? • The Nature of Celebrity Health Advocacy and Advice in Media • Julie C. Lellis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • Abstract not available.
Crisis Communications Preparedness Among U.S. Organizations: Activities and Assessments by Public Relations Practitioners • Rhegan McDaniel and Kirk Hallahan, Colorado State University • A survey of U.S. public relations practitioners (n=126) found that three-quarters of their employer organizations have a written crisis communications plan and that organizations, as a whole, were reasonably prepared to engage in crisis communications. Preparedness was measured based on the presence of a crisis plan as well as a tactics index; a training index; indices related to the maintenance of lists of employees, media and stakeholders; and the monitoring of the print and broadcast media and the Internet.
Assessing and Managing Reputation among Multiple Stakeholder Groups of a Health Care Organization Seen Through the Lens of Identity and Identification • Angela K. Mak, Iowa State University • This paper uses PeaceHealth Medical Group as an example to assess a health care organization’s reputation among various key stakeholder groups seen through the lens of identity and identification. An elite interview and eight focus groups (i.e. donors, volunteers, community leaders, local community, support staff, media, nurses, and doctors) were conducted. The different dimensions of primary and secondary reputation from stakeholder groups revealed that a reputation held by a specific stakeholder group is based on the strength of its relationship with the organization.
The Syllogism of Apologia: Rhetorical Stasis Theory and Crisis Communication • Charles Marsh, University of Kansas • Rhetorical stasis theory – the process of identifying a debate’s core issue – can provide a hierarchical structure for crisis response strategies. The author proposes that the accusation in a crisis situation – the kategoria — has a syllogistic form, allowing crisis managers to decide whether to attack an accusation at its minor premise level, major premise level or conclusion. Stasis theory posits three content-related issues categories.
Is the Press Legitimizing the “Truth”? An Examination of the Third Party Endorsements of the “Truth” National Anti- tobacco Campaign • Jensen Moore and Fred Vultee, University of Missouri-Columbia • This study used discourse analysis to examine the positive press coverage (i.e. third party endorsements) of the “Truth” national anti-tobacco campaign. Thirty-nine national and regional articles from 1999-2005 were analyzed. The findings provide insights into the central themes, identifiable images, and dominant discourse presented by the media about the campaign. Results of this study are important because little is known about the legitimizing force of the press in regard to these campaigns.
Why do Students Major In Public Relations? A Study of Factors Influencing a Student’s Choice of Major, and Gender Similarities and Differences • Gina J. Noble, Oklahoma State University • This study surveyed public relations majors to determine the factors influencing the selection of their major in an effort to help public relations educators, advisers and counselors better understand the motivations and expectations of these students. The study attempts to provide information regarding why students decide to major in public relations, how students perceive the major and its job opportunities, common misperceptions regarding the profession, and gender similarities and differences of students selecting the major.
Sources and Synergies: News Media Discussion of Public Relations and Ethics • Bonnie Parnell Riechert, University of Tennessee • News media discussion of public relations and ethics is investigated in a computer-assisted content analysis of articles mentioning both “public relations” and “ethics” in The New York Times from 1988-2004. Themes in coverage are identified. The Public Relations Society of America and its code of ethics are represented in the coverage, indicating some success in frame sponsorship. The phrase “public relations” is used in a variety of ways; implications for practitioners and educators are discussed.
Effects of Endorsement Type and Expertise Indicators on Web Credibility • Amy Robinson-Russ and Marilee Long, Colorado State University • This study investigated the effects of endorsement type and author expertise on online credibility. It was hypothesized that subjects would perceive an online message endorsed by a third party (news organization) as more credible than one endorsed by a first party (corporation), and that subjects who received additional author information would assign higher credibility to the message than those who received the author’s name. Results showed no significant difference in how subjects perceived message credibility.
The Dialogic Potential of Weblogs in Relationship Building • Trent Seltzer, University of Florida • Previous research has revealed a gap between the relationship-building potential of traditional Websites, the objectives of public relations practitioners, and the actual design of organizational Web sites. A content analysis of 50 environmental weblogs was conducted to identify the existence of dialogic principles that can be used to effectively build relationships online. Comparisons between weblogs and traditional Web sites suggest that weblogs may incorporate these principles to a greater degree than traditional Web sites.
The Death of the Models: A Meta-Analysis of Modem Dimensions in Public Relations • Bey-Ling Sha, San Diego State University • In recent years, the venerated models of public relations have been reconceptualized as dimensions of public relations behavior. This article examines the internal reliabilities of items across three studies constructing the “classic dimensions” of two-way, symmetrical, ethical, interpersonal, and mediated communication – as well as the “cutting-edge dimensions” of social activities and conservation – concluding with recommendations of specific items shown by meta-analysis to be the most valid measures of the new dimensions of public relations.
Crossing boundaries: Comparing online media relations of Fortune 100 companies’ U.S. vs. China corporate sites • Ying Sun, Ohio University • While Web sites have become important corporate communications tools globally, no research has addressed the application of the Web to media relations in an international setting. This exploratory study compared media relations strategies as evident in the U.S. and Chinese corporate sites of American companies. Using content analysis, this paper examined how these sites address journalists’ information needs and facilitate two-way symmetrical communication, and investigated how country-specific contexts influence the application of public relations models
Strategic Public Relations Based on a Scenario Approach: A Case of an Insurance Company • MinJung Sung, University of New York • Abstract not available.
Lowering the Bar: Privileged Court Filings as Substitutes for Press Releases in the Court of Public Opinion • Samuel Terilli, Sigman Splichal and Paul Driscoll University of Miami • In the civil lawsuit against Kobe Bryant for sexual assault, the judge admonished lawyers for engaging in “public relations litigation” – the use of pleadings to attract media attention and try cases in the court of public opinion. This paper looks at the legal ramifications of such practices. It concludes that lawyers and public relations professionals can responsibly use court documents to communicate with the public, so long as they do not abuse the process.
Lobbying as Advocacy Public Relations and its “Unspoken” Code of Ethics • Kati A. Tusinski, University of Oregon • This paper examines lobbying as a form of advocacy public relations. Interviews and document analysis are used to illustrate the advocacy function of lobbying and questions the ethics of such work. This research fills two visible gaps in the public relations body of knowledge by continuing to develop advocacy as a function of public relations and by contributing to the development of lobbying as a profession by studying the ethical frameworks lobbyists employ to their work.
Organizational Credibility as a function of Source Trust • Edward Vieira and Susan Grantham, University of Hartford • This study examined the role of affect and reason in cognitive involvement, comprehension, message credibility, and subsequent attitude formation. The results indicate that the model was driven by comprehension and involvement in processing the message. The non-profit designation (versus for-profit) was significantly linked to level of involvement with the message and subsequently source credibility and a positive attitude toward the topic.
Cross-National Conflict Shifting: A Case Study of the DuPont Teflon Crisis in China • Yimin Wang and Juan-Carlos Molleda, University of Florida • The purpose of this paper is to illustrate and support the theory of cross-national conflict shifting through a case study of a transnational crisis, the DuPont Teflon crisis in China. This recent corporate crisis originated from the United States due to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s administrative action against DuPont, which instantly shifted to China where it transformed into a consumer product safety crisis. A triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods was used.
Fund Raising on the Internet: A Content Analysis of ePhilanthropy Trends on the Internet sites of the Organizations on the Philanthropy 400 • Richard D. Waters, University of Florida • To evaluate the current status of ePhilanthropy, a stratified random sample of the Chronicle of Philanthropy’s “Philanthropy 400” was content analyzed for variables identified in practitioner and scholarly literature on accountability, fund-raising practices, and communication strategies. Analysis found that the top fund-raising organizations provided their annual reports, organizational goals, and mission statements while second tier organizations were more likely to use a sales and marketing approach by using e-commerce technology to process on-line donations.
The Practitioner Roles of Fund Raising: An Assessment of Gender Differences • Richard D. Waters and Kathleen S. Kelly, University of Florida and Mary Lee Walker, Consultant Orlando, FL • A national study of members of the Association for Healthcare Philanthropy found that Kelly’s (1998) adaptation of public relations roles-liaison, expert prescriber, problem-solving process facilitator, and technician-account for the daily activities of fund-raising practitioners. Similar to public relations studies, all but the last role were found to be highly correlated, indicating a two role typology might be a better descriptor. One-way ANOVAs revealed that males enacted managerial roles more than females; however, no significant differences were found for the technician role.
Web Presence of Universities: Is Higher Education Sending the Right Message Online? • Elizabeth M. Will and Coy Callison, Texas Tech University • Web sites of the 3738 U.S.-based colleges and universities were sampled and analyzed to determine how higher education employs the internet to communicate to key publics overall and students in particular. analysis revealed prospective donors are the most often-targeted public followed by faculty/staff. Prospective and current students followed. In better news to students, the five items students most often seek on the Web were the five most common items linked from university home pages.
A Benchpoint Global Analysis of How Research is Used in Public Relations Throughout the World • Donald K. Wright, University of South Alabama and Michelle Hinson, University of Florida • Although research has been an important part of public relations for more than half a century, the use of research, measurement and evaluation in the field varies dramatically. While many have advocated the use of research through public relations textbooks, the scholarly literature contains few studies measuring how research actually is used in public relations.
An Analysis of Nonprofit Organizations’ Web Pages for Public Relations: Focus on Media Relations, Donor Relations, and Interactive Communication Features • Hye Min Yeon, University of Florida • This study is to examine how the 100 largest nonprofit organizations utilize their Web sites for donor relations, volunteer relations, media relations and their interactive communication features. The result of this study revealed that most of selected organizations were effectively using the Web sites and donor relations were utilized the best. However, there is no relationship neither between public relations activities and grouped Web sites based on the revenues, nor between interactive communication features and the grouped Web sites.
Dictating the News: Understanding Newsworthiness from the Journalistic Perspective • Lynne M. Zoch and Dustin W. Supa, University of Miami • This study looks at previous research done in journalism and public relations to identify eight factors that determine newsworthiness. A content analysis of news releases from public and private corporations was then used to determine if they contained the eight factors identified by the research. The analysis indicated that only two of the eight factors were being used regularly in the releases, and that the majority of the releases would not be considered newsworthy by journalists.
STUDENT
Public Relations Writing: What do Agencies Want? • Kurt Wise, DePaul • This study explored the perceptions of public relations professional working in agency settings concerning the writing skill of entry-level practitioners and public relations writing pedagogy. Focus group participants indicated writing for the Web required a different approach than other writing tasks in an agency setting. Professionals also contended educators spend too much time emphasizing news releases and not enough time on other types of writing such as telephone and/or email pitches.
What Do They Get When They “Give Back?” A Three-Year Study of Public Relations Student Attitudes Toward Civic Engagement • Lisa T. Fall, University of Tennessee • The purpose of this three-year study is to assess how using what students learn in the classroom during internships influences their attitudes toward certain civic engagement issues. Results demonstrate that having more opportunities to use what they learned while on the job significantly predicts career choices as well as attitudes toward who they believe benefits most (themselves, organization, supervisor, community, target public/s) and how valued they believe their contributions are to their employer and to them personally.
Why are More Women than Men Attracted to the Field of Public Relations? Analyzing Students’ Reasons for Studying PR • J. Rebecca Folmar and Lois A. Boynton, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • This quantitative study explores why more young women than young men are attracted to the collegiate study of public relations and choose to join the public relations workforce professionally. Women’s reasons for being attracted to public relations included: it is a profession for which they feel well-suited, allowing opportunities for relationship building, interpersonal communication, and creativity; and it is a broad, portable career path that allows opportunities for advancement as well as flexibility for family demands.
The Gatekeeper Interview Assignment: Teaching Public Relations Students How to Write for the News Media and to Conduct Media Relations Effectively • Elizabeth A. Johnson and Lynne M. Sallot, University of Georgia • This study uses the results of two focus group discussions, and telephone and e-mail interviews with 33 students who had completed “gatekeeper interviews” in public relations writing courses to judge the pedagogical value of the assignment. The gatekeeper interview requires students to interview in the newsroom working journalists who make decisions about using content that has a public relations practitioner influence in the news.
Teaching (About) International Public Relations: An Examination of Individual and Institutional Attributes of Public Relations Educators in the United States • Angela K. Mak and Jane W. Peterson, Iowa State University • This paper updates Parker’s (1995) international public relations (IPR) education study by surveying PR educators on the AEJMC PRD mailing list. Results show significant changes in the past ten years in international perspectives in PR courses, the number of IPR courses offered by schools, and individual and institutional attributes between educators who teach IPR and those who do not. Suggestions for PR educators, school administrators, and graduate students in the US are discussed.
Building a Stronger PRSSA chapter: What Self Determination Theory Tells Us About the Importance of Motivation and Need Satisfaction • Robert S. Pritchard, Vincent F. Filak and Lindsay L. Beach, Ball State University • This study uses self-determination theory to predict the impact of need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation on PRSSA members. While higher levels of need satisfaction universally predicted more positive ratings of both the PRSSA chapter and adviser, Teahan award winners were significantly more positive in their ratings of all of these variables. Furthermore, students who felt more intrinsically motivated reported a greater likelihood that they would persist in PRSSA and transition to PRSA upon graduation.
Sources and Synergies: News Media Discussion of Public Relations and Ethics • Bonnie Parnell Riechert, Tennessee • Abstract not available.
Portrayal of Public Relations in Mass Communication Textbooks • Candace White and Thomasena Shaw, University of Tennessee • A qualitative textual analysis of how public relations is portrayed in the most commonly used textbooks in introductory mass communication courses was conducted to see if portrayal has improved since Carolyn Cline’s similar study in 1982. The theoretical premise was that the literature indicates that journalists are socialized to hold negative attitudes toward public relations, and that socialization begins in the academy. Results show portrayal has improved, but negative attitudes continue to be expressed in textbooks.
Public Relations 2006 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
College students and Creatine: Are Fear Appeals Effective in Communicating Health Risks? • Hyang Sook Kim, Donna Sheffield and Talal Almutairi, Kansas State University • This study looks at the effect of fear appeals on self-protective behavior. A total of 121 college students viewed advertisements depicting side effects of creatine consumption. Comparing three groups with different levels of knowledge, we found that messages were most effective on those who were familiar with creatine, but had never used it. Primary results suggest that previous knowledge is a factor to be considered when presenting threatening health information.
Examining the Social Context of the College Learning Environment for the Growing Population of Older Adult Students • Terri Ann Bailey, University of North Carolina • Age-based nontraditional students, defined as students 25 years old or greater, represent the fastest growing postsecondary educational group in the United States. The size and growth of the population of older adult students suggests that information about their unique experiences has implications for public relations faculty in developing more open pedagogies and mentoring strategies.
A Sense of Agency: Utilizing Firms in the Public Relations Campaigns Course • Vince Benigni, College of Charleston and J. Christopher Wood, University of Georgia and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri • Extending Benigni and Cameron (1999) and subsequent works, this essay espouses the notion of agency partnership in the public relations campaigns course. Because 90 percent of campaigns professors utilize an “agency structure” in this capstone course, it stands to reason that area firms are a natural bridge to fully embracing the concept. The authors examine pedagogical, role definition, and careerist literature, and offer a 10-part list of best practices for agency partnership.
An Investigation of Public Relations’ Role in Supporting Corporate Culture: A Case Study of a Regional Healthcare Facility • Pamela G. Bourland-Davis and Beverly L. Graham, Georgia Southern University • Tapping into the stories of an organization provides an opportunity to capture an organization’s culture. This study examined an organization’s culture to assess the public relations role in regard to the culture. Focused interviews of employees and a content analysis of newsletters identified recurring cultural themes. The results provide support for public relations playing an integral role in advocating for or supporting the culture of the organization as identified in the key themes generated.
The Power of Public Relations in Media Relations: A National Survey of Health PR Practitioners • Sooyoung Choo, University of South Carolina • Based on the typology of power suggested by French and Raven, this study identified five types of power PR practitioners have in media relations. The survey results suggest that PR practitioners working for health organizations have “expert power” in the media relations. Especially, those who work for non-profit organizations, who have frequent contacts with reporters, and who develop close relationships with reporters have “expert power.”
The Role of Public Relations Practitioners’ Communication Networks: A Social Network Perspective on Public Relations Management • Joungwha Choi, Michigan State University • This study examines the relationship between public relations practitioners’ and departments’ communication networks and organizations’ public relations performance. Based on the social network approach and the Excellence theory of public relations, theoretical propositions are provided on the relationships between the network structure that PR practitioners have and public relations excellence.
Effects of Entertainment Television Program Viewing on Student’s Perceptions of Public Relations Functions • Youjin Choi, University of Florida • This study conducted a survey with students in an introductory public relations course to examine the effects of television viewing of entertainment programs with public relations characters on the perceptions about public relations functions. A factor analysis classified students’ perceptions into five categories: two-way communications, political communication, spokesperson, writing, and informal media relations.
Excuse us, please: Examining the Effect of Excuses on Corporate Credibility after an Adverse Incident • Colleen Connolly-Ahern, Penn State University • Crisis communication is an important area of public relations research. This paper details the results of an experiment that examined the effectiveness of different types of excuses and different delivery formats for those excuses on the credibility of a fictitious company after an adverse incident. Results indicate that excuses help corporations regain some their credibility after an adverse incident.
Persuasion and Ethics: Towards a Taxonomy of Means and Ends • Brenton Danner and Spiro Kiousis, University of Florida • The literature on persuasion ethics either largely ignores the distinction between the means and ends of ethical persuasion or at least does not recognize the finer distinctions at work. This paper provides a review of the current literature on persuasion ethics with particular attention to the distinction between when it is ethical to engage in persuasion and the ethical boundaries when performing persuasive acts in a public relations context.
Relationship Types and Outcomes: A Case Study of Internal Military Relationships • Tiffany Derville and Teresa Heisler, University of Maryland University College • Internal military base relationships were examined through 18 interviews and a focus group. The researchers found that the order of importance for relationship outcomes is either situational or in need of adjustment; publics with long relationships with organizations evaluate them against their histories with them; and the need to carry concerns up a chain of management results in dissatisfaction, even when needs are ultimately met. A three-tiered method for classifying relationship types is proposed.
Building an Understanding of the Main Elements of Management in the Communication/ Public Relations Context: A Study of U.S. Practitioner Practices • Barbara DeSanto, University of North Carolina-Charlotte and Danny Moss, Manchester Metropolitan University and Andrew J. Newman, Manchester Business School • This study is the U.S. stage of an international research program identifying the managerial elements of public relations work. Building on previous research studies, this study had two aims: (1) examining the efficacy of the five-factor model emerging from the previous U.K. study, and (2) identifying and exploring the U.S. practitioners’ managerial elements. The results include the validation of the five-factor model among U.S. practitioners, along with identification of managerial role characteristics in U.S. organizations.
Transparency in Government Communication • Jenille Fairbanks, Kenneth Plowman and Brad Rawlins, Brigham Young University • Basic to a successful democracy is the existence of a public informed about government actions. This requires government information to be open and accessible to the public. This study sought to understand how communicators in government value and practice transparency. Constant comparative thematic analysis of 18 semi-structured interviews of government communicators revealed a transparency model for government communication. This paper outlines that model and identifies practices and structures that promote transparent communication practices.
Man or Mouse – Which is Better: Proctored or Online Exams? A Comparison of Test Score Among a Graduate Public Relations Management Course • Lisa T. Fall, University of Tennessee • The purpose of this study is to determine if online exam administration is inferior to traditional face-to-face proctored (pen and paper) administration. The population for this sample consists of 186 graduate students enrolled in an online Master’s degree in Science Administration program at a mid-sized Midwestern state university. In particular, these students have all taken JRN 670 (Public Relations Management) as an elective course toward their degree.
The Intersection of Administration Support for the Faculty Advisor and Student Need Satisfaction • Vincent F. Filak and Robert S. Pritchard, Ball State University • This paper investigates a “motivation transference” wherein instructors receiving administration support are likely to perceive greater student motivation and need satisfaction. A survey of PRSSA faculty advisors (n=104) found that higher levels of administrative support and self-determined motivation predicted the advisor’s own rating of how positive they thought their students would be in rating their performance as the advisor.
Extending Models of International Public Relations Practice: An Analysis of the Arla Foods Crisis • T. Kenn Gaither, Elon University and Patricia A. Curtin, University of Oregon • This study examines communications materials from the Arla Foods case to test models of international public relations practice, extend theory in the discipline, and provide suggestions for international practice. It begins by classifying the models according to their underlying macro-level philosophical assumptions and outlining the ramifications of those assumptions.
Communicating During Times of Crises: An Analysis of Press Releases from the Federal Government Before, During, and After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita • Amanda Hall Gallagher, Maria Fontenot and Kris Boyle, Texas Tech University • This paper examines crisis communication strategies before, during, and after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Press releases from the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency, Homeland Security, and U.S. Senators and Governors from Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas were analyzed using Coomb’s (1995; 1996; 1998; 1999) symbolic approach to crisis communication. Findings from the study demonstrate that the tactic used most commonly by state officials were suffering and attacking the accuser.
Predicting Media Coverage of Corporate Performance • Soo Yeon Hong, Kiuli Wang, Syracuse University • This study collected and analyzed 838 news stories to identify predictors of corporate performance coverage in the media. A context of company’s quarterly earnings reported to the Securities and Exchange Commission was used. The hierarchical regression analyses found that economic power and earnings per share surprise are significant predictors.
Contemporary Attitudes Toward Integrated Marketing Communication • Jeffrey D. Hutson, Ball State University • This research explored whether attitudes regarding integrated marketing communication (IMC) among both educators and practitioners can place IMC in an inductive or pre-theory stage of theory development. The analysis indicates an acceptance of IMC methods. However the data does not place attitudes regarding IMC in an inductive or pre-theory stage of development. This then permits the conclusion that IMC at present is a communications management approach, not a nascent communication theory.
What you Don’t Know will Hurt You: Information Literacy, Service Learning, and Future Public Relations Practitioners • Ann D. Jabro, Robert Morris University • Students’ information literacy skills of “know” and “access” were determined to be inadequate during a 15-week course titled “Writing for Advertising and Public Relations,” a writing and research-intensive course featuring a service learning component. Pre- and Post- course assessment surveys, weekly student journals, and research portfolio analyses support that students’ information literacy skills can be enhanced by altering pedagogic practices, consulting with experts and empowering students to seek assistance.
Building Online Dialogic Relationship: The U.S. Fortune 500 versus China 500 Corporate Web Sites • Jing Jiang, California Lutheran University • This study explored the similarities and differences of corporate Web sites in the use of dialogic principles to build online dialogic relationship by the U.S. Fortune 500 and China 500 companies. Consistent with previous studies, the results show that both the U.S. Fortune 500 and China 500 companies corporate Web sites do meet the prerequisites of dialogue, namely, they are easily navigated, contain useful information for customer, investor, and media publics, and provide features to maintain visitors on the site.
An Analysis of the Literature on Third-Person Effect for Implications in Public Relations Strategic Message Design • Deena G. Kemp, University of South Florida • Third-person effect (TPE) theory states that people respond to messages based on the expectation that others will be more influenced than themselves. For public relations, TPE can result in unintended outcomes or may be used strategically to achieve communication goals. This paper reviews seven studies that examine TPE for strategic communication in order to formulate a TPE research agenda for public relations in the areas of audience analysis, message design, and program evaluation.
Exploring the Effects of Negative Publicity: News Coverage and Public Perceptions of a University • Sei-Hill Kim, John P. Carvalho and Christy E. Cooksey, Auburn University • Using content analysis of a local newspaper and data from a survey of local residents, this study examines the effects of negative publicity on public perceptions of and support for a university. Our data indicated that greater exposure to unfavorable news articles was associated with lower levels of perceived reputation and trust in the university. Unfavorable perceptions were also related to decreased support for the university.
Differences in Gender Roles in Public Relations and South Korea • Sora Kim and Roxanne Hovland, University of Tennessee • This study examined gender differences in the roles of public relations practitioners, inclusion in influential networks, and relationships with mentors in South Korea. Altogether 102 South Korean public relations practitioners participated in the survey from January to February 2006. The results of the study confirm some of the findings of Western research as well as suggest new insights about important cultural differences in the roles of practitioners as managers and technicians.
The Portrayal of Public Relations Practitioners in The West Wing • Emily Kinsky, Texas Tech University • An investigation of the portrayal of public relations practitioners was performed using content analysis of the 22 episodes in the debut season of The West Wing. The practitioners were coded based on demonstrated traits and work performed or discussed. Significant differences were found between male and female practitioners being included or disciplined, appearing as major characters, dealing with government officials and the media, discussing speech writing, and appearing silly.
Understanding Influence on Corporate Reputation: An Examination of Public Relations Efforts, Media Coverage, Public Opinion, and Financial Performance from an Agenda-Building and Agenda-Setting Perspective • Spiro Kiousis, Christina Popescu and Michael Mitrook, University of Florida • This study investigates public relations efforts and media coverage beyond message outputs and media placement, by tracing the impact of public relations efforts and media coverage on corporate reputation through the theoretical grounding of first- and second-level agenda-building and agenda-setting. A triangulation of research methods compared public relations content, news coverage, public opinion, and corporate financial performance for 28 companies from the annual Harris Interactive (2005) Reputation Quotient.
Going Public to Restore a Tarnished Image: A Content Analysis of President Bush’s Major Post-Katrina Speeches • Brooke Fisher Liu, University of North Carolina • When Hurricane Katrina swept the Gulf Coast, President Bush’s newly formed Department of Homeland Security received its first test and failed. In this paper, I apply image repair discourse theory to analyze the major speeches Bush gave after Katrina. I examine: (1) how Bush presented his response to Katrina in his speeches; (2) how Bush responded to the public’s criticism in his speeches; and (3) how effective the speeches were in repairing Bush’s tarnished image.
Practicing Public Relations in China: An Examination of Multinational Public Relations Firms • Yi Luo, University of Maryland • This study of five multinational public relations firms in China seeks to (a) examine the multinational public relations firms’ sensitivity to societal culture and (b) explore three core concerns in public relations management: function, gender diversity and communication models. Results with 16 practitioners in the firms supported global public relations theory. Suggestions for specific application of global public relations theory are recommended.
Challenging the Monolithic View of Ethnic Minorities in Public Relations Strategies: Hispanic Culture-frames of the Healthcare Issue • Belio A. Martinez, Jr., University of Florida • Framing, and etic/emic concepts are combined to formulate a culture-framing model to discern between minority subgroup issue-frames. An analysis of 21 in-depth interviews with Colombian, Cuban and Puerto Rican Americans in the state of Florida resulted in five unique healthcare frames for these Latino subgroups. Findings in this study challenge the myth of a monolithic Hispanic community and call for more nuanced public relations research and campaign efforts targeting multicultural publics.
The Secret Key to Beautiful Skin is not a Secret Anymore: A Case Study of SK-II’s Image Restoration Strategies • Juan Meng, University of Alabama • SK-II, a high profile beauty line of Proctor & Gamble, was sued by a Chinese consumer in 2005, which raised serious questions about SK-II’s product safety and the credibility of its advertisements. The theory of image restoration discourse was applied in this case to analyze SK-II’s attempts to restore its tarnished reputation in the Asian market. More rigorous image restoration strategies for multinational corporations (MNCs) in the Asian market were also recommended.
Digging Deeper: Crisis Management in the Coal Industry • Barbara Miller and J. Suzanne Horsley, University of North Carolina • Through an analysis of the coal industry, this study provides insight into the unique considerations associated with responding to crises among risk-related industries. Given the often-negative image associated with risk industries, crises may be a context for improving existing public perceptions by demonstrating a commitment to responding to crises effectively.
The Academy versus the Profession: A Comparative Analysis of Ethical Discussion in Public Relations Publications • Michael A. Mitrook and Benton Danner, University of Florida • Content analysis concerning the nature of ethical discussion in both peer reviewed public relations journals and public relations industry publications. Of the 35,944 articles from four scholarly journals and four industry publications covering the period 1998-2005, 1057 mentioned ethics in some substantive way and were further analyzed in four categories: appeal to a normative ethical theory; mention of a code of ethics; mention of metaethical issues; and relating ethics to a particular public relations theory.
Cultivation of Relationships as Resource Management: Employee-organization Relationships (EOR) in the Context of Globalization • Lan Ni, University of Texas at San Antonio • Applying the framework of resource management to the cultivation of relationships for achieving organizational goals, this study examined how the cultivation of employee-organization relationships (EOR) was influenced by globalization strategies. Findings from 60 interviews in 14 organizations suggested that the process of cultivating EOR indeed reflected the demands of globalization strategies. Organizations focused on different dimensions of EOR cultivation, demonstrating a visible effort of public relations to build resources that could contribute to organizational effectiveness.
The Link Between Strong Public Relationships and Donor Support • Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University • Based upon a mail survey completed by 275 donors of a non-profit organization, this study measured the association between perceptions of public relationships and donor support. A modified version of Hon and J.E. Grunig’s (1999) relationship scale was used. Results of one-way analyses of variance indicate that strong public relationships are not related to amount donated, but they are associated with years of support, happiness to continue donating, and happiness to recommend others to donate.
A New Typology of Risk Communication Process Variables • Michael J. Palenchar and Elizabeth A. Crisp, University of Tennessee • Risk communication process variables are a potentially useful typology for examining the strategic creation of risk communication messages and audience responses. Based on a literature review across disciplines, this meta-analysis identifies a new typology of psychometric and other risk communication process variables categorized by control, trust, context, uncertainty and knowledge. The authors also advocate for more reflection and review of risk communication research literature to systematically address present and future research needs in the field.
Roles and Blogs in Public Relations • Lance V. Porter, Kaye D. Trammell, Louisiana State University and Deborah Chung, University of Kentucky • A national email survey of public relations practitioners investigated the use and perceptions of weblogs or blogs and how that use is related to roles and status. Cluster analysis challenged Porter and Sallot’s 2003 roles typology, reverting to the previous manager-technician dichotomy. While blog use was on par with national audiences, practitioners were maintaining mostly personal blogs and using blogs professionally at low levels. Furthermore, women lagged behind men in the strategic use of blogs.
Public Participation: An Experimental Test of Stage of Involvement and Power Sharing on Satisfaction • Kristina M. Ray, David M. Dozier, Glen M. Broom and C. Richard Hofstetter, San Diego State University • The normative literature on public participation suggests that stakeholder satisfaction increases (a) when decision-making power is shared and (b) the public participates early in the decision-making process. In an experiment, 804 subjects were randomly assigned to groups and exposed to four treatments where power sharing and stage of public involvement were systematically manipulated.
The Dialogic Characteristic of NGO Web sites and The Concept of Interactivity • Hakimeh Saghaye-Biria and Foad Izadi, Louisiana State University • This study examined the interactive potential of the Web sites of 50 non-governmental organizations to understand how they are building dialogic relationships online. The data suggest that while most NGO organizations meet the technical and design aspects of dialogic communication – here referred to as user-to-system interactivity – they are not taking full advantage of the two-way communication potential of the Internet.
Claimsmaking and Mountaintop Removal Mining: A Frame Mapping Analysis of PR Material from the Coal Industry and Environmental Activists • Marc C. Seamon, Marshall University • This study is a computer-assisted analysis of how claimsmakers frame mountaintop removal mining in PR materials designed to influence public opinion and policy. The frames used by competing claimsmakers and the words that comprise those frames are identified. Abstract patterns of usage and association among the frames are documented and made visual through 3-D interactive graphs. Interpretation is provided of the frames and their associative patterns. Implications for PR practitioners and researchers are discussed.
A Qualitative Analysis of Fund Raiser Roles and Experiences at Public Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) • Natalie T. J. Tindall, University of Maryland • According to fund raising theory, the chief fund raiser should be a member of the dominant coalition for any advancement of fund raising effort to succeed (L. A. Grunig, J. E. Grunig, & Dozier, 2002; J. E. Grunig, 1992; Kelly, 1998). This paper examines the experiences of 27 institutional advancement officers at public historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs).1 The fund raisers enacted the expert prescriber, problem-solving facilitator, and technician roles described by Kelly (1998).
Perception of Public Relations: An Experiment Testing the Impact of Entertainment Portrayals of the Profession on Students and Practitioners • Kaye D. Trammell, University of Georgia and Lisa K. Lundy, Louisiana State University • In this pre/posttest experimental design involving practitioners (n =28), public relations majors (n=39), communication majors (n=33), and non-majors (n=40), researchers investigated the impact of entertainment portrayals of the public relations profession. Findings indicate that while all groups believe the portrayal of the profession in the stimulus was inaccurate, participants allowed the entertainment program to cloud their perception of public relations. Respondents experienced third-person effects but the phenomenon dissipated as one’s connection to the profession decreased.
Impact of Blogs on Relationship Management during a Crisis • Kaye D. Trammell, University of Georgia and Emily Metzgar, Louisiana State University • Using a post-test only experimental design with control group, this study investigated the impact of blogs on relationship management during a crisis. Participants (N = 109) were exposed to a personal blog (n = 45), organizational blog (n = 46), or control (n = 18). Results indicate blogs impact the perception of the level of crisis an organization experiences. Additionally, relationships created through blogs impact the perception of crisis. Use and credibility were also investigated.
Toward a Social Construction of the Field of Global Public Relations: A Case of Female Practitioners in Russia • Katerina Tsetura, University of Oklahoma • Social construction was used to develop a theoretical framework for studying multiple identities of public relations practitioners, based on professional, cultural, and gender characteristics, as a foundation for reconceptualization of the public relations field. Results of interviews and focus groups with female practitioners from Russia reported. This project provided baseline to systematically explore multiple identities of professionals and showed how the proposed framework can be used to understand public relations as a socially constructed field.
Women’s Meaning-making of Cervical Cancer Campaigns: Using a Cultural Approach to Reframe Women’s Involvement with their Health • Jennifer Vardeman, University of Maryland • This study extended the situational theory of publics to understand how women from different racial and ethnic backgrounds seek information about cervical cancer. Qualitative focus groups and in-depth interviews were employed with African American, Hispanic, Indian, and White women. Findings suggest that women represent both aware and latent publics because of differences in problem recognition and level of involvement. Furthermore, women tend to group reproductive health issues together rather than separating them.
“My Grandmother Ate Fish Her Whole Life and There Isn’t Anything Wrong With Her”: An Exploratory Study of How Women Perceive Contradictory Messages in Media about Fish Consumption • Jennifer Vardeman and Linda Aldoory, University of Maryland • This study employed focus groups with women to examine their perceptions of contradictory information portrayed in media about fish consumption. The situational theory of publics provided a theoretical framework in that women’s perceptions were understood in terms of how much they recognized eating fish to be a problem, how personally relevant the problem of eating fish was for them, and whether they perceived barriers to eating fish safely.
Priming, Framing and Position on Corporate Social Responsibility • Alex Wang, University of Connecticut-Stamford • This study tested the effects of priming, framing, and position on how participants judged a target corporation: effects produced by statements that focused on issues of corporate social responsibility (CSR) within a context without mentioning a target corporation (priming) and effects produced by stories that linked the target corporation to CSR issues through negatively framed news (framing).
Telling the American Story to the World: The Purpose of U.S. Public Diplomacy in Historical Perspective • Jian Wang, Purdue University • This paper seeks to provide a critical reflection on the mission and function of U.S. public diplomacy through an examination of the manifest mandate of the three major institutional settings for such international outreach programs, i.e., Committee on Public Information, Office of War Information, and the United States Information Agency. Through historical synthesis, this discussion aims to enrich our understanding of current and long-standing issues regarding the concept of public diplomacy.
Blogging 101: Issues and Approaches to Teaching Blog Management in Public Relations Courses • Richard D. Waters and Jennifer A. Robinson, University of Florida • As the social impact of blogging continues to grow, public relations practitioners must be prepared to develop and manage constituency relationships by managing and responding to blogs. This paper highlights how blog writing/management can be purposefully incorporated in public relations curricula, including a sample assignment. Results of informal interviews (n = 28) with students enrolled in a public relations writing course are reported and a variety of issues raised by students are discussed.
Measuring the Donor-Nonprofit Organization Relationship: The Impact of Relationship Cultivation on Donor Renewal • Richard D. Waters, University of Florida • Through the use of organization-public relationship measures developed by Grunig and Hon (1999), this project examined the value of the donor-nonprofit organization relationship. A survey of donors (n = 120) for a California-based healthcare organization revealed that major gift donors and repeat donors were more likely to have stronger feelings of trust, satisfaction, commitment, and balanced power than normal donors and one-time donors, respectively.
Beyond Counting: The Use of Press Clippings as a Measurement Tool • Brinn Wellise and Jennifer Greer, University of Nevada, Reno • A survey of a randomly selected sample of PRSA members found that practitioners deem press clippings, despite their simplicity, as an important and frequently used measurement tool. Practitioners counted press clippings and used more complex levels of clip analysis; those techniques combined ranked near the top of a list of what some have seen as “more sophisticated” PR measurement tools. Long-time and more upper-level practitioners placed less value on clippings than other professionals surveyed.
Constructing a Cultural Definition of Public Relations: A Textual Analysis of The New York Times • Candace White and Cheryl Ann Lambert, University of Tennessee • This study examined how public relations is contextually defined, using newspaper articles as cultural texts, to determine how readers would derive meaning of the term. Public relations was frequently used as an adjective to ascribe negative meaning to the noun it modified, and the media definitions, and therefore the cultural perceptions of public relations, do not often match textbook definitions. Newspaper readers would make negative inferences about public relations.
The Moral Development of Public Relations Practitioners: A Comparison with Other Professions • Lee Wilkins, University of Missouri and Renita Coleman, University of Texas-Austin • This study gathered baseline data on the moral development of 84 public relations professionals. The PR practitioners in this study scored sixth highest among professionals tested, ranking behind seminarians/philosophers, medical students, physicians, journalists, and dental students, but above nurses, graduate students, undergraduate college students, veterinary students, and adults in general. They performed significantly better when the ethical dilemmas were about public relations issues than when they were not.
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